Civilizations+in+Crisis

Reforms and Survival: MI:Despite nearly 200 years of failure on the battlefeild, the Ottoman empire somehow managed to survive into the 20th century.
 * Ottoman Retreat and the Birth of Turkey || Western Intrusions and Crisis: Egypt ||
 * MI:Weakened by internal strife and unable t prevent European rivals from whittling away at territories on all sides,the Ottoman Empire appeared near disintegration. However, there were some reforms by Ottoman rulers in the 18th century which slowed the decline of the empire and the advance of European Powers.
 * In part, the Ottoman strife was brought about by continuous succession of weak leaders in an imperial-style political system which centered on a wise and able Sultan ruling the people.
 * The Importance of Artisans also declined, as competition arose between European manufactures. Merchants belonging to Christian and Jewish minorities also began trading more heavily with European powers, rather than Ottoman merchants.
 * In the late 1700s, the newly strengthened Russian Empire under Peter the Great, and the newly independant Balkans began atatcking Ottoman forces, chipping away at the vast and poorly defended territory. for the next several decades.
 * Due to European rivalries, the British helped the Ottoman empire survive in the later parts of the 19th century due to fear of Russia taking control of the Ports at istanbul and becoming a threat to naval domination in the Mediterranean.
 * Reforms also had to come from within, with Sultans and their advisors attempting to rein in the selfish ruling elite.However, reform was difficult due to deep ottoman social divisions.
 * Sultan Selim III attempted to reform the military and bureaucratic system of the empire to improve efficiency, however, this met with massive backlash from the over-important Janissary corps, whom revolted against him. Later Sultan Mahmud II succeded, inciting revolt among the Janissaries after hiring and training a special army corps, and slaughtering the vast majority of them. To help further improve Western society, Mahmud attempted to westernize (acknowledging European superiority), overhauling the entire military structure of the government in a far reaching program known as the Tanzimat reforms.

Repression and Revolt: MI: The reforms among the Ottoman sultans were effective in defending the empire from outside threats,however it began to cause the empire to crumble from within. MI:Although it did not establish a pemanent European prescence in the Muslim Heartlands, Napoleon's invasion of Egypt in 1798 sent shockwaves across what remained of the Islamic World. Bankruptcy, Resistance, and European Interventions: MI: Muhammad Ali's successors made a muddle of efforts to reform Egyptian society, perhaps causing even more division among the classes and leading Egypt to social disunity. JIhad: Madhist revolt in Sudan MI: As egypt fell under British control, the invaders were drawn into conflicts in the Sudanese south, as egyptian efforts to conquer sudan were feircely resisted.Nomads were among the leading dissenters, preventing the Egyptian regime from spreading any father than Khartoum.
 * Western Bureaucrats began to view the sultanate as a threat to true westernization, and the new elite gained many enemies among old elite groups such as the Ayan and the Ulama, who wanted to preserve as much of the old order as possible.
 * The last ottoman sultan, Abdul Hamid began a return to despotism after sensing the growing power and hostility of the western elites.Restricting political freedoms (including freedom of the Press), he also nullified the constitution and had all dissidents killed.This came to an abrupt end with the peaceful coup of 1908, where the emperor was demoted to a religious authority after the advent of the Ottoman society for Union and Progress.
 * Unfortunately, the Young Turks began with very little time to prepare for WWI, but they managed to stave off the empire's defeat with some last gap military victories, and playing the European powers against one another as the previous Sultans had done.However, they lost arab backing, unwilling to end the subjugation of Damascus and Beirut || Muhammad Ali and the Failure of Westernization:
 * However, Napoleon say his campaigns as the first step to defeating British power in india. As they advanced, the French forces were met with tens of thousands of Mamluk troops, and Murad, the leader of the Mamluk coalition viewed Napoleon as a "Donkey Boy" whom he would soon drive from Islamic lands.
 * After this major miscalculation lead to a series of crushing defeats (most famously at the Pyramids of Giza), it became increasingly obvious about the weakness of Islamic nations at this time, and how far they had fallen behind Europe in terms of waging war.
 * IN the chaos following the French invasion the Albanian officer Muhammad Ali emerged in 1801. He was very impressed with the disciplineand power of the French Forces, and began a campaign of westernization, however, these reforms were not far-reaching enough to transform Egyptian society.Lackin Ali's determination, his successors called Khedives ruled egypt until a military Coup in 1952.
 * Relying on Egyptian cotton for the purposes of acquiring new wealth, there was an increased schism betweent he landlord class and the egyptian peasants.The expansion of cotton productions and failure to produce more food forced Egypt to dependancy on EUropean economy.
 * Much of the revenue that the Khedives managed to collect was used for the purposes of buildin extravagant palaces, and most of what was left was spent on pointless military campaigns.
 * The completion of the Suez canal in 1869 made Egypt a desirable territory for purposes of conquering .The canal coon became a vital military and trading link between European powers and their colonial empires in ASia and East Africa.
 * Egypt philosophers called for a Jihad to drive the infidels from Egyptian lands and argued that only via a return to patterns of religious observance could the Muslim empire return to it's former prosperity. Other philosopherssuch as Al-Alfgani and Muhammad Abduh stressed learning from westerners in order to retain the capacity to innovate.and strongly disputed the practice of interpreting the Qurán literally.However, both religious groups failed to solve major problems, though they stressed the importance of the need for Muslim unity to pose a challenge to the West.
 * Even in the areas where egyptian rule was strongest, it was greatly resented, as the egyptian regime was notably corrupt, demanding high taxes of the conquered peasants.In addition, the sudanese were angry at Egyptian attempts to eliminate the slave trade, which had proved a major source of profits since ancient times.But only when Muhammad Achmad appeared did the rebellion begin in full force. Achmad claimed descendancy from Muhammad, and due to physical appearance associated with teh Madhi (savior/promised deliverer), his claims to power were given more legitimacy.
 * The Jihad which Madhi lead was one of the mst violent reactions to Islam's dilution as it spread, being waged not only against the British infidels, but also the Egyptians who were viewed as heretics.Madhi attempted to purge Islam of what he viewed as demeaning and unholy superstitions, and return it to it's original purity. Use of guerilla tactics and great charisma lead to great victories over the Egyptian forces.However, unlike most movements, after his death at the hands of Typhus, Madhi found a worthy succesor in the hands of his most trusted general, Khalifa Abdallahi, who allowed the Madhists to builda strong and expansive state, controlling immoral practices such as drinking, smoking , prostitution, theft, etc...
 * However, the British general Kitschener managed to defeat the Madhi forces with his superior machineguns, viweing them as a major threat to European dominion over Africa. By 1899 the Madhi state had collapsed, and Britian was once again free to begin invasion of the African interior. ||

Notes on Qing China: Pg. 604-611 3-14-2011

Rise and fall of the Qing empires in China: MI: In the late 18th century, a long period o fstrong rule by the Manchus and a high degree of social stability for the Cinese people gave way to rampant corruption, economic dislocation,m and civil unrest. Over the course of the 19th century, western powers took advantage of these weaknesses to force the Chinese markets open and weaken the Qing rulers to puppet status.
 * Although the Manchu nomads had been biulding an expansive state north of the Great wall for centuries, their conquest of China was both sudden and unexpected,A local leader named **Nurhaci** was the main architect of unity among the long-warring Manchu tribes, combining them into a cohesive fighting force within the **8 banner armies,** and as a people under his rule.
 * During this period, the Manchu elite's adoption of Chinese ways great;y acce;erated. The Manch bureaucracy was organized along Chinese lines, chinese scholars found great employment, and chinese court ceremonies were adopted,However, it was more the weakness of the Ming dynasty at it's fall , rather than Manchu strength which allowed the Manchu to take over, advancing on the Ming capital at Beijing.
 * Within decades, the Manchurian armies were forcing submission from the Chinese resistancee, and compelling tributes from Vietnam and Burma to the south, ruling an area larger than any previous regime except the Tang, and adopting the new title "Qing".

Economy and Society in the early centuries of Qing rule: MI The Manchu determination to preserve much of the Chinese political system was paralleled by an equally conservative approach to preservation Chinese society as a whole. Rot from Within- Bureaucratic Breakdown and Social Disintigration: MI:By the late 18th century, it became clear that the Qing was in decline.The system of examinations which maintained the bureaucracy was riddled with corruption in the form of cheating and favoritism, and family relations began to take priority over ability to work. Barbarians at the South Gate- The Opium War and After: MI: A major difference between the Manchu downfall and that of the previous dynasties was the nature of the "Barbarians" who threatened the empire from the Outside. The Europeans were treated largely as barbarians and not taken as a serious threat, leading to chinese weakness. Civilization at Risk- Failed Reforms and Rebellions: MI: ALthough it was not immediately apparent, Chinese defeat in the Opium war greatly contributed to a mounting crisis which not onl threatened the Qing regime, but also the Chinese civilization as a whole as growing commercial encroachments of the west spawned a series of rebellions, at one point threatening to overthrow the Qing dynasty. Fall of the Qing- End of a Civilization?: MI:By the beginning of the 20th century, Manchu power was numbered.With the defeat of the Taipings, main resistance to Qing power came from secret societies, who inspired multitudes of local rebellions, all of whihc failed because of lack of resources and organization.BUt these secret societies provided valuable training to a new resistance to Manchu power.
 * The long nurtured values of hierarchy were emphasized in both education and imperial edicts.Among the elite classes, the Extended family remained the core form of social order, and the state grew increasingly suspicious of any rival forms of social organization such as guilds or secret societies.
 * The lives of women in Qing society remainded largely confined to the home, with the dominance of the elder male population being held together by the state.The power of women was further decreased by the idea of men having the choice for wife among women of a lower class.
 * Some of the strongest measures of the Machurian rule were aimed at alleviating the rural distress, and imperial funds(Up to 10%) were mainly spent on repair and construction projects. Taxes and labor requirements were also lowered, and tenure was granted to those willing to resettle abandoned areas.
 * The commercial and urban expansion which had begun in the Song era was once more renewed with the long peace that China enjoyed under the Qing. Regional diversification of crops such as Tea was coupled with development o fnew methods of financing agriculture and artisan production. This strong economic activity with new emphasis on trade gave rise to a class of merchants called the **Compradors,** who specialized in import-export trade.
 * Essentially anyone with enough money could buy their way to a position in the government.
 * Over several decades, there was a drop in necessarty funds to maintain the state to individual families, resulting in widespread havoc from failure to arm the army properly to ecological disaster with the bursting of dykes creating floods.Tens of thougsands of peasants died of disease and famine.
 * There was an assumption widely held by Chinese thinkers that a new dynasty would soon arise to help mend the deficiencies of Qing China. HOwever, they underestimated the severity of the problems which China faced after it's decay under the Qing regime, and the corrupt and conservative late-Qing regime was more an obstacle to the changes that China so desperately needed.
 * Europeans posessed far-stronger technology and organization which allowed htem to compensate for their small numbers, though their society was just as sophisticated as the Chinese, the Chinese population was 400 million, while Britain had only 7 million.
 * THe main stigma for the **Opium War** was british dissatisfaction with Chinese trading terms.While Britain had long been trading with CHina, it found that it had no commodities worth trading, leading to a massive influx of silver bullion to China.In an attempt to rival chinese goods and produce a product which was as valuable to the Chinese as Tea was to the British, they introduced Opium, and by the eve of the Opium war, over 40,000 chests of 133 pounds each were being shipped into China for sale.
 * Although the British had managed to turn trade balances with the Chinese in their favor, the introduction of a more potent Opium to china was highly destructive to the Chinese economy and social order.Opium dens spread in time with the rise of unemployment and stagnation of the Chinese agricultural sector, and increasing amounts of people began squandering chinese wealth in British Opium dens.
 * From the Early 18th century, Qing emperors recognized the threat of British Opium and began taking measures to shut down the trade, however, none of these measures were truly enforced until the advent of **Lin Zexu**, who promptly barricaded Canton and ordered all Opium in the harbor to be destroyed, enfuriating the British who demanded military action.After China's defeat, Opium poured unchecked into CHina, Lin was sued for peace and exiled, and many european nations began to carve china up into spheres of influence, beginning a period of CHinese history known as the "Century of Shame"
 * By far the greatest of these was the **Taiping rebellion**, lead by the mentally unstable,and semi-christianized **Hong Xiuquan**, who proclaimed himself a prophet come to save CHina.Against the ill trained and ill disciplined Qing troops, Hong's well trained mixed-gender army won a series of stunning victories which lead them to establish a rival capital at Nanjing, just west of Shanghai.
 * However, in the decades to come, the revolution imploded on itself with Hong and many other leaders scheming and plotting.Taiping policies also alienated some followers(such as the Scholar-gentry) and increased the amount of enemies araryed against them.The ban on opium smoking and Hong's variation on Christianity alienated the europeans, who began to back the Qing regime, which was on the verge of collapse at the time.
 * IN the later 19th century, opposition to the rebellions began to weed out corruption in the bureaucracy, making attempts to strengthen the Chinese economy.Dynamic provincial leaders such as Zeng Guofan were greatly behind the Chinese **Self-Strenghtening Movement**, in which the Chinese modernized their armies (with western backing) and began a bloody suppression of the rebellion.
 * However, members of the Qing regime secretly backed rebellions which attempted to expel foreigners from China, such as the Boxer Rebellion, which was put down only through the intervention of foreign imperialist powers, leading to a greater control of China's internal affairs
 * By the end of the 19th century, some of the scholar gentry and especially merchants in port cities began to become more and more invested in Secret societies and other operations aimed at overthrowing Qing regime.
 * Because of the influx of western educated scholars, Overthrow of the Qing was redirected also to the empowerment of reformist leaders and the building of another powerful nation-state rather than simply establishing another new imperial dynasty.
 * For aspiring revolutionaries such as Sun Yat-sen who emerged as one of the most articulate aristocrats, and to him seizing power was largely a measure to enact the massivhe reforms which China needed. When aristocrats refused to put down the rebellions, the Qing had no choice but to abdicate.On february 12 the last emperor of CHina, a small bo named Puyi was deposed, and a republic style government was established in China.