The+Muslim+Empires

Homework 1.1 ESIRIT Chart on the Ottoman Empire

Economics:
 * The economy of the Ottoman empire was largely militaristic(like that of Russia's), and geared towards aiding territorial expansion.
 * Trading within the empire was left to Christian/Jewish merchants, who, as Dhimmis were under the official protection of the Ottoman sultan.
 * THe ottoman's ever expanding conquest meant that annexed areas often got tax relief from the spoils of war.
 * The Ottoman Empire suffered from severe inflation, as did all of Europe, as New World silver flooded in. This, together with debased coinage, fueled corruption. By the 17th century, Europeans and consolidated their control of new sea trade routes, by-passing the Middle East and diminishing the transit trade through Ottoman lands. Asian spices were shipped directly to Europe, and wars with Iran interrupted the silk trade.([])
 * European manufactured goods flowed in, undercutting local handicraft products and enriching Levantine merchants. The Ottoman Empire’s unfavorable trade balance resulted in an outflow of gold, while European states demanded more favorable trade treaties ( ”Capitulations" ) and were guilty of blatantly abusing them.

Social: Political: Interactions: Religion: MI:One of the most noteworthy attributes of Ottoman Turkish rule was Ottoman toleration of different religious beliefs. The Turks of the Ottoman Empire were Muslims, but they did not force their religions on others. This toleration of other religions was unique at the time.
 * As the Warrior aristocracy gradually became overshadowed, they set up regional and local bases of support, eventually competing with the sultan and bureaucracy for labor and income control.
 * The Sultans did their best to turn the varying social classes against one another,in order to maintain his position and ensure that no one group grew too powerful.However, much like the Abbasid sultans before them, the Ottoman Sultans gradually grew more distant from their people as their empires grew more vast and wealthy.
 * Eventually, the Ottoman sultans followed elaborate court ritual systems based on a combination of Byzantine,Arab, and Persian rules, and unlike earlier sultans, did not . Day-to-day administrations were carried out by the Viziers, who often had more power than the Sultan, and because the Ottomans in herited their vague succesion policies from the arabs, they were very prone to social instability.
 * The empire consisted of 4 main social classes under the bureaucracy.In descending order of importance, they were: Men of the Pen(educated people, judges,scientists,doctors), Men of the Sword(Military leaders/soldiers), Men of Negotiation( Merchants and artisans), and Men of Husbandry (Farmers and Herders/Peasants).
 * The Collapse of the Seljuk Turkic kingdom of Rum allowed for a long period of instability and warfare in the Anatolia region around the Bosporus.The Seljuk sultans, and turkic peoples flooded into the region.By the end of the 13th century, the **Ottoman** leader Osman had begun to dominate the region, using it as a new base for his empire.
 * Military leaders were dominant in the Ottoman state, their influence eventually growing to the point where the Ottoman cavalry became more like a warrior aristocracy, being granted land and peasants to enrich their coffers and improve their military strength(much like Feudalism).Many of these warrior Aristocrats vied with assimilated bureaucrats for control of the developing Ottoman political system.
 * Janissaries were among those who attempted to translate military service into political power, however their growing importance was heavily linked to the decline of the aristocratic cavalry, eventually gaining enough power to depose the sultan and decide who would take the throne (Much like the roman Praetorian Guard).
 * Even before the rise of the Ottoman Empire, turkic speaking peoples from central asia played key roles in Muslim Empires such as the Abbasids, working as administrators and soldiers.
 * By the 1350s, the Ottomans had expanded from their seat of power in Asia Minor to into europe in the 14th century. The ottomans decided to bypass the Capital of the once-great Byzantine empire, eventually opting to conquer it in the 15th century.IN 1453, the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II repeatedly attacked Constantinople with his vast army and seige cannons.For 3 days, the Ottomans looted the ruins of Constantinople.
 * While much of the Christianized world views the Ottoman rulers as brutal and corrupt despots, they were actually quite effective and capable rulers during their time, especially during the earlier periods of the Ottoman Empire's spread.

 Intellectual: Technology: Homework 1.2: ESPIRIT Chart on the Mughal Empire Economics: MI: By the late 17th century, Mughal India had become a major trading destination for european sailors, and they brought many goods from throughout Asia to trade for Indian textiles(Most often cotton). Social: MI: Like their counterparts in the Safavid and Ottoman empires, Muslim and Hindu warrior aristocrats ruled the bureaucracy, and (similar to the feudal system), were granted land and peasants for their support of the central Mughal power. Political: MI- The Mughal Empire was originally founded by **Babur**, a descendant of the mongol Khans, and he directed his expansion towards regaining his lost kingdom, raiding fertile Indian lands to acquire money for this cause. Intellectual: MI: In addition to his time conquering, Babur was also a great patron of the arts and sciences, writing an account of the History of India, performing music, and often designing public gardens for his capital in Delhi.However, Akbar brought intellectualism to a zenith and though he himself was illiterate, he was very well educated and often encouraged open debates between Christian,Muslim,and Hindu scholars. Religion: MI: Akbar attempted to use religion as a way to unify the Subcontinent of India under his rule. His basic belief was use of a universal religion called **Din-I-Illahi** to reconcile the Hindu majority and the muslim aristocracy. Interactions: Technology: MI: Perhaps due to the Mughal rulers luxurious and opulent lifestyles, Mughal technology was largely directed at beautification, such as architecture and artistic advancement. Safavid Notes: THe Shi'a challenge of the Safavids: MI: In the 1st years of the 16th century, the Safavids founded a dynasty which conquered all of what is now Iran.They restored Persia as a major center of politics and culture, also establishing it as one of the strongest and most enduring centers of Shi'ism in the Islamic World. Politics and war under the Safavid Shahs: MI: Isma'il's depression after the loss at Chaldiran prompted subordinate Turkic chiefs to attempt to seize power. After years of Political Turmoil, the new Shah, Tahmasp I set about restoring the power of the dynasty. However, the empire only reached it's height under Shah Abbas. State, and Religion: MI: Over time, (perhaps due to the installation of many Persian officials into the central bureaucracy), Persian gradually supplanted Turkish as the language of the upper class, and the bureaucracy. Early Artistic Splendor and Affluence: MI: Even though earlier rulers built mosques, schools, and financed public works projects, Abbas 1 Surpassed them all. After securing his throne, he began securing his empire as a major center of Islamic learning and trade.
 * Turks were Muslims and were tolerant of other religions because of that. From its beginnings Islam had accepted the existence of other monotheistic religions. Jews and Christians had lived in -lands ruled by Islam since the time of the prophet Muhammad.
 * Certain rules had evolved to order the relations between Muslim and non-Muslim: Islam was to be dominant; rulers were to be Muslim. Muslims were not allowed to convert to other religions, nor could non-Muslims attempt to convert Muslims. Non-Muslims were to wear distinctive clothing.
 * Perhaps the most important of the special regulations on Christian and Jewish development was the demand that they pay a special tax, the jizya, that was not paid by Muslims. This tax was paid by all adult Christians and Jews who lived in Islamic states. By common belief, it was based on -an agreement forged between Christians and Muslims in the first days of Muslim conquest. In return for tolerance of religious practice and the protection of the Islamic state, the non-muslims agreed to pay the tax and to accept the restrictions on their clothing, etc.
 * The ottoman fighting force was increasingly dominated by the **Janissaries**, infantry divisions composed of forcibly conscripted adolescent boys from conquered regions, whose parents often gave them up in because of the opportunity to serve the emperor. Though they were legally slaves, they recieved extensive training, and were converted to Islam.
 * Almost immediately after conquering and sacking imporant/developed areas, the Ottomans attempted to rebuild them, for example in Constantinople.Aqueducts were built from the surrounding hills, markets were re-opened, and the city defenses were repaired.The sultans also strove to beautify their own cities to appease the populace.
 * In addition to the Mosques, Ottoman sultans also built mansions, rest houses, religious schools, public gardens, and hospitals.Ottoman inhabitands began to compare their cities to Paradiso itself.
 * The Ottomans were successful due to their military technology, especially due to long-range cannons and seige engine.
 * Ottoman soldier were heavily armed, and often equipped with muskets and other gunpowder-based weapons.
 * This eventually lead to the abolishment of the cavalry, due to the basic strength of the infantry being so powerful.
 * While the West's original love of Indian cotton and other goods originated during the time of the Roman Empire, this was it's first major resurgence and tying in of India to the global economy.
 * This can be seen, to this day in modern names for cotton clothes, for example: Pajamas, Muslin, Chintz, and Calico all originated in India, and were later adopted into Western culture.
 * Because they were easily washed, and inexpensive, England (most often Middle class, though they were popularized in the upper government during the time of Queen Anne, and Queen Mary) grew to favor Indian cotton.Even after the industrial revolution, Indian skill with cotton was legendary, and europeans still attempted to copy their techniques, holding Indian cotton to a higher standard.
 * In turn, they were required to maintain a set amount of soldiers in their cavalry which would support the Mughal empire in times of war.
 * The Court and bureaucracy were paid using money paid as tributes, and from taxes on lands that were used to support the imperial household.
 * Because of the shortage of well-trained replacements, most areas were rulerd by local Hindus who were allowed to keep power so long as they swore an oath of loyalty to the emperor and paid their taxes on time. This structure lead to the placement of great power in local leaders and military retainers, though they were supposedly still loyal to the Mughal ruler.
 * After many decades of war ending in defeat, Babur gave up his dreams of returning home to the arid Asian Steppes, and fully focused his energies on conquering India. As a result, in 2 years, his armies had conquered large portions of the Indus and Ganges valleys, and established a political dynasty which would last nearly 300 years.However, Babur did not
 * After Babur's death due to sudden illness, his enemies promptly attacked from all sides. His son and eventual heir **Humayan** was exiled to the Safavid empire for 5 years, but after gaining a political foothold in Kabul, he lead a series of campaigns which returned India to Mughal rule.
 * India was once again attacked after Humayan's death from falling down steps, as they expected his 13 year old son **Akbar** to be incapable of ruling efficiently.However, they were entirely wrong.Akbar personally oversaw the building of his military and administrative systems with the vision of empire unlike his predecessors.
 * In addition to his public works projects, Akbar attempted to establish living quarters for the homeless/vagabonds, attempted to improve the calendar system, and even controlling the consumption of Alcohol.
 * Akbar also attempted to increase women's rights, helping women get out of the home, and prohibiting Sati(the burning of Hindu women after their husband's death). He also encouraged women to remarry, and disapproved of Child Marriage.
 * Akbar also abolished the "Jizya", a tax levied against non-muslim members of the empire, and improved religious tolerance overall. He ordered the Muslims to respect cows( which the Indian majority viewed as sacred), and repealed the law that prohibited the building of new Hindu temples, also promoting Hindus to high ranks in the government(dealing a major blow against the religious segregation in the bureaucracy).
 * Akbar also believed that if the sectarian quarrels and even violent conflicts could be brought to an end by uniting the culturally diverse India under this single creed. However, this failed in the long run.
 * After Babur's death, Humayan was dethroned after his brother contested rule, and armies from Afghanistan invaded.
 * Under Akbar's rule, the Mughal armies crushed the regional enemies who had hoped to capitalize from the loss of Humayan. His armies spread to north and central India, and brought a great deal of the subcontinent under Mughal control.
 * Indian interactions with the west also occured primarily through trade with the West, who valued Indian cotton and spices.
 * The best known architectural achievement of this time, the Taj Mahal(Named for Shah Jahan's Wife, **Mumtaz Mahal**), demonstrated the combination of Islamic and Hindu traditions.Combining the Hindu use of ornamentation with the Muslim use of domes, arches, and minarets, along with marble reflecting pools to show off the beauty of said achievements.
 * Indians used a combination of white marble, and inlaid it with semiprecious stones in geometric, floral designs, and the addition of fountains allowed the plants to appear animated in the altered light.
 * Like the Ottomans, the Safavids arose out of the struggles of rival nomadic Turkic groups in the wake of the Mongol invasion. Also like the Ottomans, the Safavids rose to prominence as the frontier warriors of an extremely militant strain of Islam.However, unlike the Ottomans who championed the popular majority of Sunni islam, the Safavids aided the spread of Shi'ism.(Religion)
 * The Safavids found their origins in a band of Sufi mystics and religious leaders near the Caspian sea.The original leader of the Safavids, Sail-Al-Din, began a military campaign based on the reform and 'purification' of Islam, spreading it among the wandering Turkic tribes that characterized that region.(interactions/Religion)
 * In the chaos which followed from the Mongol collapse, Sail-Al-Din and his Sufavid followers gained increasing popularity. However, as their numbers grew, and the Red-Heads(Safavid followers known for their distinct headgear) preached Shi'ism to a larger audience, their enemies also multiplied.(Interactions)
 * After a long period of local struggles in which 3 succesive Safavid leaders perished, the remaining Safavid commander Isma'il lead the band of Turkic followers to a string of battle victories, culminating in the capture of the city of Tabriz, where he was proclaimed the Emperor.(Political)
 * The Safavid successes and popularity among the Turkic peoples at the borderlands sparked worry from the Ottoman Empire's leaders. Resulting was the battle at the city of Chaldiran, one of the largest clashes between organized islamic empires in history.This ended in crushing defeat for the Safavids and while they did reclaim the lands the Ottomans occupied after the battle due to superior strategy, the superior power and weapons of the Ottomans made the Safavid empire centered in what is now Iran, as westward expansion was blocked.(interactions)
 * Tamasp and his succesors worked to limit the power of the Turkic chiefs, though they were eventualyl transformed into a warrior nobility, much like in the Ottoman Domains .Similat to the ottomans, the Safavid warriors were aligned with certain villages who were forced to supply troops and labor.
 * The most powerful of the Safavid warriors occupied key posts a the imperial bureaucracy, amd especially after the defeat at the battle of Chaldiran, the Turkic chiefs posed a constant threat to the weakened Safavid court. To counterbalance this, the Safavid rulers drafted Persians to the ever-growing bureaucracy.
 * However, the ever-growing conflictsd betweent he Turkic chiefs and the Persians was further complicated by Tamasp's practice of inducting captured Russian slaves into the Bureaucracy. Like the Janissaries in the Ottoman empire, these slave groups soon grew to hold great political sway, and rose in social position very often.
 * Under Abbas the great, this practice truly flourished, and Russian slaves were not only educated and converted to Islam, but also granted provincial governor-ships and high court offices. Like the Janissaries, the Russian slaves monopolized on the firearms and artillery that had long been prominent in the Safavid army.
 * Although the Safavid rulers tried to downplay the idea of divinity, they did claim descendency from the Imams, or Succesors to Ali which formed the core of their Shi'ism.Jews, Christians, and other religious minorities were pressured to convert.
 * Changes is the status of the Safavid rulers came according to impulsive religious changes which had been instrumental to their rise to power.THe militant, extensive power of the SHi'a religion was modified to suit the empire, becoming one of it's major underlying cultural supports.
 * Early Safavids even imported arabic speaking scholars, but in the times of Persian power, persian religious scholars were used, and paid by the government.HOwever, the Mullah(leaders of local prayers) were also employed, and government influence on religion peaked. Religious leaders were mandated to mention the Safavid ruler and Curse the 3 other caliphs in their Friday sermon.
 * He built road systems and rest houses for merchants,set up workshops to promote the fine Persian silks and rugs that were in high demands,and encouraged trade not only with their muslim neighbors, but also with the increasing european prescence in the area.
 * Though Abbas 1 undertoko many building projects, he took special care in designing his capital at Isfahan around a great square with many two-teired shops, large mosques, soaring arches, public gardens, and enormous government centers.He also built workshopsdedicated to the advancements of the arts, and painting was highly valued.
 * Mosques were a particularly large architectural achievements, often inlaid with blue ceramic tiles in floral/geometric patterns, with stylized sections of the Qur'an written in arabic to add texture, etc...