Early-Modern+Unit

This image depicts the metaphorical "shrinking of the world" as European and Eastern civilizations begin to spread out and colonize foreign lands on a global scale.

The World Shrinks- The Global Economy

The Transformation of the West

The Rise of Russia

Early Latin America

Africa and the Atlantic Slave Trade

The Muslim Empires

Asian Transitions in the Age of Global Change


 * Region || Major Events || Major Developments || Major Continuities ||
 * Western Europe

Partially as a result of economic downturn, European interest in imperialism and seafaring empires began developing, changing the culture of the many colonial societies. However, global contacts did not overshadow regional cultural norms- Europeans preserved most important features of their past, and colonization usually did not have major cultural effects on the main country. || Rise of the Spanish Monarchy- Isabella of Castille and Ferdinand of Aragon take power after the expulsion of the Arabs in 1492. Their wishes for cultural uniformity and elimination of ethnic diversity lead to major economic backlash, and interest in the voyages of Columbus to "India". Helped spark European interest in naval expansion. Italian renaissance- 1300s Printing Press 1455 || Revival of Imperialism/Development of Seafaring empires- Begun by Portuguese Prince Henry the Navigator's explorations into Africa, continued by Vasco Da Gama, and then Spain's Christopher Columbus. Soon afterwards, with the new emphasis on trade and long-distance voyages, Britain, Holland, and France soon followed this new trend.
 * Many Europeans turned to jobs in manufacture as many agricultural jobs were being taken by slaves.THis provided additional revenues for the growing governments, and increased variety of exports in trade. Helped Spark the Industrial Revolution.

Development of new technology/innovations- In order to fuel the expanding trade overseas, sturdier boats and better navigational tools were needed to chart a course.This also lead to an increase in the importance of cartography ,and the pressure for developing a more accurate world map. Ex-> Compass, Mercator Projections, Sextants,

Economic gain became a major motivational factor for expansion.The Netherlands, Britain, and France all created great trading companies, which posessed monopoly in the area of trade which it had been designated.These companies often acted as indpendant governments, raising armies and establishing great commercial fortunes without much intervention from their sovereign states.

Growing movements of Intellectualism countered by increasing religious fervor- The Scientific Revolution, Renaissance, and other such movements placed growing importance on logical thinking, while Enlightenment and Reformation placed increased stress on a singular, close knit relationship with god through strong faith(weakening the power of the Church). || Continuities can be seen in European attitudes toward outside socities as inferior, the overall slow process of information spread leading to a large technological and cultural schism. EX- Vasco Da Gama used his guns to intimidate other sailors, and captured/tortured Indian traders to set an example. ||
 * Global contacts did not overshadow regional cultural norms- Many european societies preserved key features from the past including agricultural lower class. However, Europe did experience many cultural changes during the Scientific Revolution/Enlightenment
 * No systematic changes occured in gender roles
 * Some new military technology, but no true breakthroughs until 1750. Little change took place in agriculture and manufacturing techniques,
 * Many societies attempted to preserve their former political systems in the age of empires.
 * European beliefs of cultural superiority-
 * Central/South Americas

Due to the european policies of exploitation of nativese for economic profits, South American culture at large was greatly changed by interactions with Spain and Portugal such as the Encomienda system, Sociedad de las casas, etc.... and suffered through many attempts at Europeans to subjugate their own culture. ||  || * Afro-Eurasian diseases auch as smallpox and measles were transferred to native americans, who had no natural immunity. Thus, thousands died. Occasionally, up to 80% of an entire island's population would fall victim to these diseases.This greatly weakened the strength of Native American civilization over a 150 year period.
 * Coercive labor systems spread, and dependant global economies required cheap production of goods to make a profit (Due to competition and trade.
 * For many Natives and Mestizos, estate agriculture was the only answer, as the peasants did not have the legal independence to leave. || Animal Husbandry was also popular, as horses and cattle were introduced to the New world. ||
 * North America

North American change was largely brought about by low-class europeans who attempted to reshape native society to be just like European society, but with themselves at the top. but as the colonies began developing a sense of self-identity, as populations grew, both colonies and core nations began thinking of their economic profitability and self-interest, creating societal schism. || * The first colony to be established was Panama, under Vasco de Balboa. Expansion resulted from the efforts of violent and treacherous adventurers, such as Francisco Pizzaro, eventually joining with Balboa in Panama, he recieved a cattle ranch.Then he took the INca emperor prisoner and killed him after his people paid ransom.Using the King of Spain's support, he became the governor of the new province.
 * Many English colonies along the atlantic recieved religious refugees such as the Calvinists who fled tensions in britain to settle in New England.
 * New York originally began as a dutch settlement, however the English took it over in 1664.
 * In Canada, the 1st substantial settlement was launched by Louis the 14th.French peasants were urged to immigrate, and due to high birth rates, New France had about 55,000 settlers that proved durable as it expanded around the fortress of Quebec. || Most white settlers attempted to transplant Western habits and society into their new surroundings, For example, American families were able to marry slightly earlier than West Europeans because of the great abundance of land. People in power in the colonies were usually lower class europeans seeking self-improvement/rise in class.
 * Opportunities to establish colonies were particularly inviting in the Americas, as European guns, horses, and iron weapons offered special advantages, and the political disarray and population decimation.
 * Colonial leaders only established loose controls, sometimes only taxing the natives, but leaving their local governments in place. Gradually however, more formal administration spread as agriculture settlements were established. || * However, like European society, Colonists placed great importance on the nuclear family unit, though they were very concerned with the safety of their children, being that they were useful for child labor. As such (growing importance of children), children were allowed more freedoms, such as the ability to speak out in public.
 * Even during rebellion, the American colonies moved in the name of western ideals and goals, rather than the British self-interest forcing their dependancy. ||
 * Russia

As Russia saw an increasing trend towards economic dependancy on the west, and importation of western cultures, social schism/rebellions also increased due to peasant alienation and opression by the upper class.

After Ivan gained Russian independance from the Tatars, he began the trend of westernization and land based expansion. || In 1767 she set up a Legislative Commission to try to reform the legal system of the empire, but the Commission was a failure and disbanded after a few years. In 1785 the Charter to the Nobility was passed, giving more power to the gentry, and increasing their rule over the serfs. --> As a result;

Periodic peasant rebellions saw peasants destroying manors, stealing land, and sometimes killing landlords, claiming that they stole the land first.Ex-> Pugachev rebellion (A Cossack Leader) who promised to end taxation, serfdom, and abolish the aristocracy.Eventually he was defeated by Catherine the GReat's Army and cut into chunks in a public execution, highlighting the mutual dependance of aristocrats on the lower class.
 * Peter's ministers created a systematized law code, and revised the system of taxes, placing increasing economic burden on the peasants. However, training institutes were founded to bring talented non-nobles into the government.
 * Peter's economic efforts focused on building up the metallurgical and mining industries, using RUssia's massive iron ore supplies to feed state run munitions and shpibuilding industries. Thus, without urbanization, or development of a large commercial class, Peter managed to reform the economy of Russia, giving it enough economic strength to last nearly 200 years. || Peter- Promotion of military expanisonism, abolishing many traditional russian practices such as the passing of a whip from the bride's father to the groom at marriage, and encouraged many upper class women to wear western style clothing and attend public social events, earning the support of many women. He even forced the Russian nobility to cut their beards and wear western clothes to commit them to a new political identity and strengthen the state.

In the years after her husband's death, Catherine promoted Westernization and extended Russia's borders. During her reign she may have added 200,000 square miles to the Russian Empire. Among Catherine's other accomplishments was the educational reform she brought to Russia. She created many elementary schools, secondary schools, and universities. She promoted the education of women and religious tolerance. Many Europeans began to settle in Russia because of the florishing culture during her reign. || * Serfdom- The power of nobility over the serfs increased steadily through the 17th and 18th centuries. Before the Mongol conquest, Russian peasants had been largely free farmers with a legal position far superior to their western counterparts.However, after the expulsion of the Tatars, increasing amounts of peasants fell into debt, and had to accept "serf" status when they could not pay. They retained much of their land, but did not have primary ownership. The Russian government encouraged this system from the 16th century onward, with laws granting landlords additional rights, and making Serfdom a hereditary status.Serfdom was used to satisfy the nobility and regulate peasant activities when the government lacked bureaucratic means to directly control the commoners.By 1800, more than 50% of Russia's peasantry was made up of serfs, and the other 50% owed considerable debts to the state.Due to this oppressive system, most peasants were illiterate and poor, and paid heavy taxes with interest.
 * Social Unrest- Russia's economic system lead to protests. By the end of the 18th century, a small but growing number of western aristocrats were ctiticizing the system as "backwards" and even called for the abolishment of serfdom.While Russian peasants were loyal to the Tsar, but harbored a great resentment towards their landlords.
 * Trade and Economic Dependance- 95% of the Russian population remained rural, and cities were small. Russia's economic andd social system worked well in many respects, able to not only support an expanding state and empire, but also allow for fur trade to other areas than western Europe.Russia's population doubled to 36 million in the 18th century in response to the dynamic state.Yet the system suffered from many limitations, such as agricultural methods being purely traditional and unsuited to mass-production, low morale of self-improvement for the peasant class, and heavy taxes on the destitute peasants. ||
 * Middle East

MI- ||  || Restoration of Persia as a major center of learning under the Safavids. Religious tolerance under Safavid rule, and abolition of the "Jizya" - a tax which descriminated based on religious affiliation. ||
 * After a long period of local struggles in which 3 succesive Safavid leaders perished, the remaining Safavid commander Isma'il lead the band of Turkic followers to a string of battle victories, culminating in the capture of the city of Tabriz, where he was proclaimed the Emperor.(Political)
 * The most powerful of the Safavid warriors occupied key posts a the imperial bureaucracy, and especially after the defeat at the battle of Chaldiran, the Turkic chiefs posed a constant threat to the weakened Safavid court. To counterbalance this, the Safavid rulers drafted Persians to the ever-growing bureaucracy.
 * Early Safavid rulers even imported arabic speaking scholars, but in the times of Persian power, persian religious scholars were used, and paid by the government. || * Tamasp and his succesors worked to limit the power of the Turkic chiefs, though they were eventualyl transformed into a warrior nobility, much like in the Ottoman Domains .Similat to the ottomans, the Safavid warriors were aligned with certain villages who were forced to supply troops and labor.7
 * Growing Safavid success and popularity leads to increasing amounts of enemies.This included protracted periods of conflict with the Ottoman Empire, which would prevent the Safavids from expanding westward through superior firepower.
 * Even though earlier rulers built mosques, schools, and financed public works projects, Abbas 1 Surpassed them all. After securing his throne, he began securing his empire as a major center of Islamic learning and trade.
 * However, the ever-growing conflictsd betweent he Turkic chiefs and the Persians was further complicated by Tamasp's practice of inducting captured Russian slaves into the Bureaucracy. Like the Janissaries in the Ottoman empire, these slave groups soon grew to hold great political sway, and rose in social position very often.
 * India

MI- While french/british rivalry raged in India, the Mughal empire allowed India to flourish, showing a new vigor for intellectual and technological achievement || * French-British rivalry raged bitterly throughout the 18th century, with both sides recruiting native Indians as allies. Eventually, the french power in India was destroyed after Britain used the capture of Calcutta to rally their army and capture numerous french and Indian lands. || The British had the advantage when colonizing Asia.For one, they had gained local approval with Indian princes to build an outpost at Calcutta, which opened trade routes to the ganges river.Next, through the British's military power these trading outposts were exceedingly well informed and had great importance to the British government. ||  ||
 * China

During the Ming Dynasty, China overall experienced a return to formal Chinese traditions, but at the same time strived for self-improvement (most noticeably the prevention of abuse of scholar-gentry powers). || 1368- Zhu Yuanzhang ascends the throne of Ming Dynasty, declaring himself the Hongwu emperor, and expelling the Mongol forces, unifying china with a grand military campaign. || Hongwu was very much aware of Bureaucracy's dependance on the scholar gentry, but at the same time attempted to make the process of application more strict and root out abuses of power in court politics.

Short term improvements in the status of farmers, though this was eventually suppressed by a growing importance of feudal style landlord families allied with the bureaucracy.

Economic, Intellectual, and Population growth, possibly brought about by increased contact with the growing empires overseas, and this economic boom lead to advances in the fine arts and literature.

Zhenghe expeditions, and renewed interest in contact with the outside world,(also to proclaim the glory of the Ming EMpire). Ex-> Matteo Ricci and Adam Schall were two jewish philosophers who aided improvement of Chinese technology(also imported technology), and the forging of new weapons. || A return to Chinese traditiona overall, and an attempt at banishment of all "barbarian cultures". Whether it be a return to formal dress, rise of the Scholar-Gentry class, etc.....

Growth of social schism between the poor and rich, and a return ot more rigid social roles and standards. ||
 * Japan

Under the unification of Tokugawa Ieyasu, Japan experienced both a renewal of interest in technological innocation from the west, and a growing xenophobia tow estern ideals (most specifically religion. ||  || Unification of Japan under the Tokugawa regime, leading to great strides towards japanese isolationism.

Growin importance of peasants, and the ability to rise in social class-> Ex Toyotomi Hideyoshi originally was a very minor peasant who rose through the ranks of military service, eventually becoming Nobunaga's right-hand man.

Technological innovation from the west, such as printing presses,firearms and clocks. || A return to isolationism (lasting nearly 200 years, in fact) in the face of what was seen as a european invasion.Also, growing xenophobia to western ideals, such as missionaries converting some Japanese to Christianity (though they remained a minority) & were being actively persecuted by the government. Outsiders were permitted to only live and work in certai areas, japan attempted to cut back on exports to the west, and Eastern thinking was widely endorsed (National School of Learning), but western Christian ideals were reviled (banning of western literature). ||
 * Africa

As Africa became more entwined with the global economy due to the slave trade, they were subject to large demographic changes such as an imbalance of gender ratios and rising rates of death, African societies did not experience major cultural change, continuing practices of patriarchal societies and feudal/kingdom structures. || * Portuguese ships pushed down the west African coast and finally reached the Cape of Good Hope in 1487. Along the coast, the Portuguese established **factories**, forts and trading posts with resident merchants. The most important of these was **El Mina** which existed in the gold-producing regions near the forest.Forts such as these allowed the portuguese to exercise great control with limited personnel, also gaining the political backing of local rulers(militarily unable to conquer the large West African states which came into being at this time).
 * Trade was the basis of Portuguese relations with the Africans, but due to the ever-expanding commerce political,religious, and social relations followed suit. Missionary efforts were made to convert the rulers of Benin, Congo, and other African Kingdoms, and the Portuguese remained constantly wary of heavy Muslim prescence in Africa. The Missionaries won a major victory in Kongo, when the royal family under **Nzinga Mvemba** converted to Christianity, and the kingdom soon followed suit.This managed to improve portuguese opinion of Africans due to the possibility of becoming "civilized"
 * Portuguese exploration continued southward towards the Cape of Good Hope and beyond in the 16th century.Early contacts were made with the Mbundu people of the South Kongo in the 1520s, with the permanent settlement of **Luanda** being established roughly 50 years later. This became the basis for the portuguese colony of Angola, which attempted to dominate the existing trade system between the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea. || * The dimensions of trade varied over time, reflecting the economic and political situation in the Americas. From 1530 to 1650, Spanish America and Brazil recieved the majority of slaves, but after the English and French began growing sugar, the Carribean became an important hub of slavery, though they never rivaled Brazil and the spanish colonies.
 * Atlantic trade had great demographic impact in West and Central Africa. According to estimates, the population of 25 million would have been more than doubled, had there been no slave trade. While it is true that slaves were prioritized men>women>children, captured women and children in Africa greatly increased the proportion of women to men.
 * Finally, as atlantic trade developed, new crops such as Maize and manioc were introduced to Africa, providing new food sources for the population, allowing it to recover more easily from the slave trade.
 * It is difficult to calculate the full economic benefits of Slavery because it was so closely linked with the mining and plantation economies of the Americas. During some periods, a **Triangular Trade** existed in which slaves were carried to the Americas, sugar, tobacco, and other goods were carried to europe, and european luxury goods were sent to africa, to begin the cycle again.
 * Most societies made a distinguish between **saltwater Slaves** and **Creole Slaves**, those who were born on the long voyage between Africa and the New World, and the slaves who were born/naturalized in America. This created a social schism among the slaves, and prevented their unification under a rebellion. || * With a mortality rate of 10-20% on the ships, about 10-11 million African Americans actually arrived in the Americas out of an estimated 12 million slaves.Up to 1/3 of captured slaves were killed before setting foot on the boats, either in slaving wars or forced marches through difficult terrain.On the **Middle Passage**, Africans suffered not only from poor hygeine and disease, abut also bad treatment/beatings from the Europeans. This lead to a high rate of suicide and mutiny on slave ships. Overcrowding was less of a factor in Mortality than in the length of the voyage from Africa to the new world.While the average rate of Mortality fluctuated, it was on average 18% until the 18th century where it began to steadily decrease. Still, on occasion, disastrous losses occured on isolated ships. Ex-> 1 Dutch ship where 700 of the 716 slaves died.


 * The high volume of the slave trade was necessary to the slave owners, because in most regimes of the Carribean and Latin America, slave mortality was high, and fertility was low (male slaves were imported more often than female slaves). Thus, the population could not fully support itself, and there was a tendency towards population loss.The only way to solve this problem is to import more slaves from Africa, beginning the cycle over again.The one exception to this trend was the Southern US, where slave population grew due to the temperate climate, and generally safer jobs.


 * The majority of the trans-Saharan slave trade consisted of women to be used as concubines and domestic servants in North Africa and the Middle East, but the atlantic slave trade concentrated on Men.
 * To some extent this was because planters and mine owners in the Americas were seeking workers for heavy labor and were not eager to buy children because of high mortality rates.Also, African societies preferred to sell men, and use the women for concubines to extend kin groups. ||

Summary of the Early Modern Unit: MI- The Early Modern Era mainly focused on a growing sense of global unification and interdependance, with the first hints of a truly interdependant global economy and cultural exchange, with mixed popularity and success. > > > > > culture. > >
 * As Africa became more entwined with the global economy due to the slave trade, they were subject to large demographic changes such as an imbalance of gender ratios and rising rates of death, African societies did not experience major cultural change, continuing practices of patriarchal societies, religious practices, and feudal/kingdom structures.
 * Under the unification of Tokugawa Ieyasu, Japan experienced both a renewal of interest in technological innocation from the west, and a growing xenophobia tow estern ideals (most specifically religion.
 * During the Ming Dynasty, China overall experienced a return to formal Chinese traditions, but at the same time strived for self-improvement (most noticeably the prevention of abuse of scholar-gentry powers). China benefitted greatly from the introduction of new crops and european technologies (though they still viewed themselves as culturally superior) and as CHinese goods were diverse and in high demand in Europe,.
 * Before french/british rivalry raged in India, the Mughal empire allowed India to flourish, showing a new vigor for intellectual and technological achievement, making the Islamic world a major trading hub once again.
 * After Ivan gained Russian independance from the Tatars, he began the trend of westernization and land based expansion. As Russia saw an increasing trend towards economic dependancy on the west, and importation of western cultures, social schism/rebellions also increased due to peasant alienation and opression by the upper class.
 * North American change was largely brought about by low-class europeans who attempted to reshape native society to be just like European society, but with themselves at the top. but as the colonies began developing a sense of self-identity, as populations grew, both colonies and core nations began thinking of their economic profitability and self-interest, creating societal schism.
 * Due to the european policies of exploitation of nativese for economic profits, South American culture at large was greatly changed by interactions with Spain and Portugal such as the Encomienda system, Sociedad de las casas, etc.... and suffered through many attempts at Europeansto subjugate their own
 * Partially as a result of economic downturn, European interest in imperialism and seafaring empires began developing, changing the culture of the many colonial societies. However, global contacts did not overshadow regional cultural norms- Europeans preserved most important features of their past, and colonization usually did not have major cultural effects on the main country. European culture was largely effected at this time by the dueling forces of the Enlightenment, and Great Awakening, (whose emphasis on logical thinking and increased faith respectively) which managed to redefine the European values.
 * During this TIme Period, the Arab world began to flourish again, experiencing both massive gains in economic importance and military strength, but also a restoration of intellectual thinking, religious tolerance, and architectural/technological advancements.