African+Nationalism

Beginning of the Liberation Struggle in Africa:
 * Most of Africa had only been under Colonial rule since a few decades before WWI began.Nonetheless, precolonial missionary efforts had produced small groups of western-educated Africans by the end of the 19th century in West and South-Central Africa.Like their counterparts in India, most western-educated Africans were staunchly loyal to the British and French overlords during the first World War.With the backing of both western elites and traditional leaders, the British and French(though moreso the french) came to use Africa for troops and raw materials.
 * However, this took a toll on their colonial dominions in the long run.In addition to local rebellions in response to forced conscription of African soldiers and laborers, the war effort severely disrupted the processes of society in recently colonized parts of Africa.African merchants suffered from shortage of demand for shipping, as well as the suddenly skyrocketing demand for crops like Cocoa. African peasants were similarly irritated, and did not beleive that they should starve to support African troops on the battlefeild.It also became a necessity to educate Africans in terms of waging war in order to make them effective soldiers.
 * The Promises of better jobs and public honors made by the Europeans with the purpose of interesting younger Africans to enlistment would eventually lead to the great increase in social unrest during the postwar years.This was especially true in the French colonies, as the french government supressed most attempts at social advancement, much moreso riots. Nevertheless, riots and strikes broke out, especially intensified by the Great Depression during the 1930s.
 * Though western educated politicians did not link with the urban workers or peasants in Africa until the 1940s, disenchanted members of the African elite began to organize in the 1920s and 1930s.In the early stages of this process, charismatic African-American political figures, such as Marcus Garvey and W.E.B. DuBois had major impacts on emerging nationalist leaders in Africa.In the 1920s, increased much effort was placed into attempts to arouse all-Africa loyalties and start Pan-african organizations"Back to Africa movement".However, leaders for these movements were centered mostly in America and the West Indies, while African delegates faced very different problems under the colonial overlords, and Pan-africanism became largely unworkable in Africa itself.
 * By the mid 1920s, African nationalism in Britain and France had also diverged sufficiently.Because of restrictions in the colonies, and because small but educated groups of Africans were represented in French Parliament, French-speaking West africans concentrated their efforts in Paris. Negritude, a program which focused on African literacy worked to combat racial stereotyping and improve black self-esteem. While Africans in british territories (excluding settler colonies like Rhodesia or Kenya) were granted greater opportunities to build political associations with Africa.

Liberation of Nonsettler Africa: MI: World War II Proved even more disruptive to the colonial order of African societies than WWI.
 * Forced labor and confiscations of raw materials and crops returned, as well as inflation and controlled markets began cutting down on african earnings.However, the wartime needs of both the British and the French lead to massive industrial developments in Africa. Many processing factories were established, and with those came a stark growth in African Urbanization. The inability of those who moved to urban areas to find proper employment created a large social unrest which helped to fuel the growing revolutionary sentiment.
 * Many soldiers from African colonies who fought valiantly soon found themselves back home facing great discrimination once more, and soon became the staunchest supporters of nationalism in africa after this betrayal.
 * There were essentially two paths to revolution in nonsettler Africa in the postwar era.The first was pioneered by Kwame Nkrumah in the british gold coast, and involved wide contacts with nationalists in both Britain and france, as well as civil rights leaders in America, epitomizing the radical revolutionary leader feared by colonial overlords. Nkrumah then founded his own political party (Conventional People's Party) and began organizing protests, demonstrations, and boycotts when the other western-educated elites proved slow to respond.British eventually recognized Nkrumah as the Prime minister of the newly freed Ghana, and completed the transfer of power in the mid 1960s.The other route involved willingness of the colonizers to give up the colonies. Without much motivation to keep their colonies in the post WWII era, France took a much more reconciliatory approach to their west-african constitutents than did the British.By 1960 all of France's former colonies were free.

Repression and Guerilla War-Struggle for the Settler colonies: MI: The relatively peaceful process of decolonization outlined above proved near-impossible for most settler colonies. Examples include Algeria,Rhodesia, and Kenya, areas in which substantial numbers of Europeans had gone to settle permanently. However while these factors lead to a supression of the posibility for a peaceful resolution, in each case the size of the european community varied, from areas like Algeria and South Africa (millions) to areas like Kenya(only a few tens of thousands)
 * Because European settlers regarded the colonies which they inhabited as new permanent homes, they fought all attempts to turn over control to the african majorities, or even to grant them civil rights.They also doggedly refused any reforms whihc would have entailed them giving up some colonial lands, and most political actions they took were at the expense of the native African people.
 * Unable to make any headway through nonviolent protest tactics or negotiation with British/French officials, African leaders often turned to violent revolutionary striggles to win their independance. The first of these erupted in Kenya in the 1950s, as Jomo Kenyatta formed the KAU (Kenya African Union), an underground organization which coalesced around a group consisting of increasingly radical leaders.After forming the Land Freedom Army in the early 1950s, they waged guerrilla warfare against the whites and "traitorous Africans" using Terrorist methods.At the height of the struggle in 1954, some 200,000 soldiers wree in action at the capital in Nairobi and in the grassy Kenyan highlands.
 * However, by 1956 the Rebellion had been defeated with military strength, but at the cost of thousands of lives.But the british were now in a modd to negotiate with the nationalists, and despite much protest from the white community, Kenyatta was released from Prison.Under Kenyatta's rule, Kenya was freed in 1963 and became one of the more prosperous states.
 * The struggle of the Arab and berber peoples of Algeria was longer and far more vicious than even that of Kenya.Algeria had been regarded for decades as a major part of France, and the prescence ov over a million french settlers only drove the french government to do it's best to retain control of this territory.However, in the decades after WW2, sporadic rioting intensified into a full scale guerilla movement, By the 1950s, the National Liberatoin Front had mobilized large segments of the Arab and Berber populatoins against the continued French Dominion.Unlike the Kenyan revolution, the Algerian revolution was met with violent backlash from the European settlers.From 1960s onward, the Secret Army Organization was directed at supression of the Arabs and Berbers, as well as any French who favored Algerian independance.However, algeria won independance in 1962, and millions left the new nation only months after it's birth.

Persistence of White Supremacy in South Africa: mi:In southern Africa, violent revolutions put an end to colonization in the portuguese colonies of Mozambique and Angola, as well as Rhodesia(what is now Zimbabwe).Only in South Africa did white minorities manage to retain their supremacy.
 * This depended on a variety of factors. For a start, the white population of South Africa was fairly evenly divided between the dutch-descended Afrikaners and the more newly arrived English speakers, and much larger white population than other settler societies. However, while this was still much smaller than the 23 million African Majority, by the mid 1980s, South Africa's white population continued growing, eventually reaching 4.5 million.
 * Unlike in other revolutions, defeated colonists had no true homeland to fall back upon.They had lived in South Africa as long as the Americans had lived in North America, and had in turn developed their own cultural identity, and persuasive reasoning for continuing the trend of white supremacy, which was far more elaborate and explicit than other ideologies at the time, relying mainly on biblical quotations and the celebration of their historical struggle.
 * Ironically, their defeat by the British in the Boer war only helped to further Afrikaner control and white supremacy.A feeling of guilt for putting the Boers in concentration camps caused the British to make many concessions to the Afrikaners in postwar years. Unsurprisingly, Afrikaner political organization thenceforth revolved around the establishment of white supremacy, eventually culminating in the Afrikaner national party in the 1940s.A rigid system of racial segregation which came to be called Apartheid was established from 1948, and was enforced by thousands of laws.

South African Apartheid and it's downfall: MI:South Africa was by no means the only country still under colonial dominance for decades after India's freedom in 1947.Portugal(long considered to be the weakest of the European colonizers) still managed to hold onto it's colonial posessions mozambique and angola until the mid 1970s.However, South Africa was by far the largest, richest,most strategically important, and most populous area which had yet to be liberated.
 * Apartheid was designed to not only ensure white supremacy both politically and economically, but also to impose massive segregation on all races in South Africa and in all aspects of their lives, including medical care, dating,spacial organization(via the creation of numerous "homelands"with each homeland holding only a single ethnic group.These were often overpopulated, and used to give blacks minimal amounts of the lowest quality of land possible, ensuring a ready supply of cheap labor due to overpopulation), and education.
 * To maintain the blatantly racist and inequitable systems of the Apartheid, the white minority had to spend a large amount of their annual budget on the establishment and training of a powerful military to enforce this racism.Because of the land's great mineral resources, the Afrikaner elites were able to eforce this powerful garrison for many decades.
 * The government also prohibited any forms of protest, outlawing the African National Party, and jailing and/or murdering black nationalist leaders such as Nelson Mandela and Walter Sisulu. Spies and other informants would also favor certain tribes and ethnic groups over others, preventing any real unification among the blacks.
 * Through the 1970s and 80s, hardening hostility and tensions began growing ever stronger between the unyielding white minority and the black majority. building to a tremulous upheaval.International boycotts had weakened the South African economy, and the South African army's repeated involvements with Angola and Namibia(as well as other neighboring states) which came into conflict with the black liberation movements.Lead by the courageous leader F.W. de Klerk, more modern Afrikaner leaders began to move for the slow dismantling of the Apartheid system.The freeing of many prisoners, such as Nelson mandela let the masses know that overlords were finally willing to negotiate.Permission for peaceful mass demonstrations and gradual enfranchisement of all South Africans in the 1994 election provided a necessary reform for the future of South Africa.

Algeria. || The French invaded Algeria in 1830. As much as 1/3 of the native population died.Algeria was granted full French citizenship, but Algerians wanted rebellion anyway. In 1954, the National Liberation Front launched the war for independance. || Popular movement, but the planners were the western educated middle class. || Mohammed Ahmed Ben Bella became the president of Algeria after the war, but his ruling became more autocratic and involved in more foreign affairs. || Recent rising food prices and government faiures hae inspired the Algerian people demand equality to rise up against Boutifleka. || transition from free state owned by king Leopold II of Belgium and establishment of an independant nation.Leopold abused the country and it's resources(maldistribution of Wealth) It was also difficult for Belgium to keep control due to the high costs. Belgium essentially gave it up after the 1960s.But there was fighting in terms of who would come to power once Belgium left. ||  || King Leopold- original owner of this country. Formerly known as Zaire. Patrice Lumumba- prime minister was assassinated by Belgium and the US because they wanted international aid from the USSR. || Republican government, but has internal turmoil, civil war, rebellion movements Economy is more based on oil in current times. || Forced labor and confiscation of crops, as well as low wages and inflation. Africans came home to discrimination in WWI. || 1940, Police fired on peaceful protestors. || Kwame Nkrumah- Founder of the convention people's party, and advocated peaceful protest.Created a welfare system || Democratic, with a rough GDP of 1800 USD per capita. not entirely indepeendant(Still part of the commonwealth) || 1891, Guine was released from Senegal, and the French were considered superiopr. Afircans gaine dthe right to vote, creating their own political parties. ||  || 1898 Defeat of Sarmory Toure 1958, became an independant state with Sekou Toure as president ||  || Largely Autocratci rulers since independance Many coups and political instability 2010 was the first free election since it's independance.Currently a presidential republic. Economy is largely based on mineral resources, and hydroelectrical power. || People in Kenya saw pan-Africanism Farmers were poor and the government did not support them. Political power was unstable and political corruption was rapmant || Kenya was a British colony in the 1800s, and they saw other countries gaining independacnce, but they were a settler colony, so it became difficult to larger white minority. 1922, the first Kenyan movmement was lead by Harry Tbuku. || Jomo kenyatta-became prime minister, and he was arrested out of prejudice.Leader of national movements Tom Mboya is the government chief negotiator. || Kenya has low economic success, Current president Mwai Kibaki.Large number of infectious diseases and especially AIDS.Also widespread use of illlicit drugs. || There was a schism between the more nationalistic || Charles de Gaulle gives a referendum, asking the people of Madagascar if they wish to become independant or to still have sovereignty, but remain tied to the French. || No known leaders, but 20 people were hanged in assumption. || Great cultural/ethnic diversity as a matter of geographic importance. || Alfred Milner- a colonial administrator who became the comissioner of South Africa Nelson Mandela- involved in African National congress and worked for nationalism. || Republican government with three branches, with middle income economy. Post independance success has increased, the economy is actually rather good, with lots of natural resources.(transition-style independance) ||
 * Nation || Date || Colonial Power || Nature of Movement || Key Leader(s) || Success? ||
 * Algeria || 1962 is when the nationalist movement began in
 * Angola ||  ||   ||   ||   ||   ||
 * Belgian Congo ||  || Two main independance movements:
 * Ghana ||  || Largely peaveful revolution, although there were violent acts against them.
 * Guinea || French has gained authority over western africa.
 * Kenya || December 12 1963, independance was gained || Very violent revolution, came from a military secret society.
 * Madagascar || Originally a free kingdom, but conquered by the french in 1896. || Madagascar was also granted French citizenship, but wanted more independance.
 * South Africa || 1910, they gained independance from Britain, and British settlers were still in South Africa. || The Dutch were the first to reach S.A., but Britain followed afterwards.It wasn't until the Boer wars, South Africa was largely not involved || 1884 Berlin Conference || Shaka Zulu-created a powerful nation which would come under conflict with british colonists.

Summary of African Nationalism:

Though the majority of Africa had only been colonized relatively recently (in the late 19th century), missionary efforts produced a group of western-educated African elites, who remained staunchly loyal to their European overlords, at least until European betrayal after WWI(where in return for African troops and supplies, the British/French colonizers promised .better jobs and education). However, the use of Afircan soldiers severely disrupted the normal goings-on in many parts of Africa, also irritating the peasants(conscription was forced, and confiscation of crops lead to starvation) and causing many strikes.Though western educated politicians did not link with the urban workers or peasants in Africa until the 1940s, disenchanted members of the African elite began to organize in the 1920s and 1930s.In the early stages of this process, charismatic African-American political figures, such as Marcus Garvey and W.E.B. DuBois had major impacts on emerging nationalist leaders in Africa.By the mid 1920s, African nationalism in British and French colonies had also diverged sufficiently.Because of restrictions in the colonies, and because small but educated groups of Africans were represented in French Parliament, French-speaking West africans concentrated their efforts in Paris. Negritude, a program which focused on African literacy worked to combat racial stereotyping(Black Soldiers returning to their home countries after WWI were often met with harsh racism from British overlords) and improve black self-esteem. While Africans in british territories (excluding settler colonies like Rhodesia or Kenya) were granted greater opportunities to build political associations throughout Africa.Because European settlers regarded the colonies which they inhabited as new permanent homes, they fought all attempts to turn over control to the african majorities, or even to grant them civil rights.They also doggedly refused any reforms which would have entailed them giving up some colonial lands to Africans, and most political actions they took were at the expense of the native African people.Unable to make any headway through nonviolent protest tactics or negotiation with British/French officials, African leaders often turned to violent revolutionary striggles to win their independance. African methods of decolonization varied widely from imitations of Indian Peaceful protests(as in Ghana) to full out guerrila warfare/terrorism(as can be seen in Kenya).