The+Americas+on+the+Eve+of+Invasion+(Pre-Colonization)

Homework 1.1 ESPIRIT Charts on Aztec and Inca civilizations. Key Vocab: Toltecs: Nomadic peoples from north Mexico who used the political vacuum in central mexico to move to richer lands. They adopted many features of sedentary peoples, but included a highly militaristic regime. Tenochtitlan: Aztec capital, locatedon a marshy island in the middle of Lake Texcoco founded circa 1325. Aztecs: People who emerged victorious in the post-toltec battle for control of the lakes which had become the chief cultural and population centres of Mexico. Chinampas:The Aztec system of irrigated agriculture, involving several beds of aquatic weeds and mud placed in frames of cane and rooted to the lakebed.They formed floating islands of crops, whose narrow structure allowed sunlight and water to easily reach the plants without causing them to rot. Calpulli: The 7 major clans which made up the Aztecs, which came to influence their imperial structure. These came about during the Aztec time as a nomadic people. Incas: Tribe centered in the Andes mountains who eventually came to create a great imperial state some 3000 miles in extent,incorporating the culture of many previous andean peoples. Temple of the Sun:Located in the Inca capital of Cuzco, the Temple of the Sun was the center of Inca religion, where mummies were kept. Split Inheritance: From the Chimor kingdom, the Inca adopted this system, which guaranteed that all political power would be passed on to descendants after death, but monetary posessions would be used ot support the Mummy for all eternity. Mita:Communities were expected to take turns working on state and church lands under Inca control,and sometimes also worked on construction projects, or in mines. This system of taking turns was essential to Inca control. Quipu: A record system made using knotted strings. It was similar in design to the Abacus.

Ci Civilization/Nation/Group__Aztecs___

Time Period


 * E || In each Aztec community the local clan in power divided the lands, setting some aside for church and state use.Each community had periodic markets according to cycles in the calendar in which a variety of goods and services were traded via a barter system. However, the Aztec economy was largely agricultural. Pochteca, merchants who specialized in long-distance bartering were central to economic development regarding luxury items. Markets were heavily regulated by inspectors and judges, a stark contrast from the modern definition of a "Market Economy".The state controlled the distribution of various commodities and distributed the vast amount of treasure recieved from subordinate peoples.Chocolate was highly valued in Aztec society, and was used as currency in certain areas. ||
 * S || MI:The Calpulli were the major building blocks of Aztec society, and they were governed by councils of family heads, however, not all calpulli held equal influence.
 * However, as Aztec power expanded, great stratification occured in the calpulli. The most prominent families who had dominated leadership of the calpulli still held local power, but they were gradually overshadowed by the central monarchy.
 * Although commoners could occasionally be promoted, most nobles were born into their class.Social restrictions were enforced through styles of dress and fashion
 * Nobles controlled the priesthood and military, however, military virtue was based on the cult of human sacrifice and skill in taking live captives.
 * Women were unequal as Inca society was very patriarchal.They worked in households, and were largely restricted to cooking, cleaning, and training their daughters to be good housewives.They were able to inherit property, and pass property. ||
 * P || MI: In the Aztec Empire, political duties were most heavily influenced by religion.As such, the emperor was also the head of the church.
 * The **Aztec government** was unlike other systems of government during the time in that it was more of a system of tribute in which conquered cities paid **respect** to the Aztec empire(mafia style protection racket). In return, these conquered cities tended to show an increase in their own economic welfare.The most likely reason for this phenomenon was because the Aztec rulers had better forms of communication and roads built in the areas they conquered, similar to those found in Tenochtitlan. This, in turn, helped these areas increase their ability to trade goods. ([]) ||
 * I || # Aztecs were among the first to have mandatory, universal education available for common citizens.However, schools were still segregated.
 * 1) The Aztecs practised advanced medicine. They used a type of antispasmodic medication - medicine that could prevent muscle spasms and relax muscles, which may have been helpful during surgery.The Passion flower was used for this purpose, a flower which still grows in Mexico today.([]) ||
 * R || MI: Religion in Mesoamerica was a vast, uniting, and sometimes oppressive force, in which the world of the Gods was not viewed as separate from the natural world.
 * Traditional mesoamerican polytheism was incorporated by the Aztecs, with such gods as sun, moon, sky, corn, rain, etc... with up to 128. However, each diety had both a male and female form.However, beneath the polytheism and regional differences, this provided great spiritual unity.
 * Though human sacrifice was always a part of Mesoamerican religion, it greatly expanded under the tribe's militarism in the post-classical era.It was believed that human sacrifice was necessary for the world to continue, and that human blood was the only form of sustenance for the gods.
 * Aztec art is difficult for modern historians to interpret, as it shows great duality between appreciation for natural beauty, and bloody sacrifice.As a result, religious symbolism effected most aspects of Aztec life. ||
 * I || Aztec interactions with other mesoamerican tribes were guided by these basic patterns:Once the aztecs had decided to conquer a particular city, they sent an ambassador from Tenochtitlan to offer the city protection. They pointed out very politely the advantages of being able to trade with the Empire. All they asked for was a small gift of gold or precious stones for the emperor. The city was given twenty days to consider their request. If the city refused, more ambassadors arrived. This time the talk was tougher, less about the advantages of joining the Aztecs than about the destruction and death which came to any city that did not submit. To show how confident they were about the outcome of any future war, the Aztecs gave the enemy chief, magic potion, to make him strong in battle and presents of weapons for this soldiers! If this did not work, a third embassador arrived twenty days later. Polite talk was replaced by blood curdling threats about what would happen after the city lost the war. This included destruction of the city's temple, enslavement of most of the population, and a promise that crippling tribute would be demanded for years to come.


 * When the army arrived at the enemy city, Jaguar knights were sent to spy out the land. They signalled to each other by imitating bird calls. The Eagle knights attacked at dawn, making a great noise, stamping their feet, chanting, an whistling loudly to frighten the foe. Then the jaguar knights encircled their enemy . The fighting was very fierce, but Aztecs tried to wound or captured their enemies rather than kill them . When the Aztec's general decided that the battle was won. Messengers were sent to call on their opponents to surrender. ([]) ||
 * T || MI:The Technology of Mesoamerica limited social development greatly.
 * For example, women in Mesoamerica spent 6 hours on average daily grinding corn into flour by hand. In comparison, Egyptian women eventually gained more freedom with the invention of water-powered and animal-based mills. Aztec women were not freed by similar advancements, and as such had to spend up to 30-40 hours per week simply on preparing basic foods.
 * The Aztecs had not developed the wheel, and as such were very primitive, compared to postclassical Europe or Asia.The Aztecs had **no iron or bronze** with which to make their tools and weapons.For this reason, many Aztec tools were made with ob**sidian and chert.**Aztec technology was so advanced that they even made **drills**, which were made of reed or bone. The Aztecs also made a variety of weapons. One weapon, the **atlatl**, made it easier to throw a spear. In addition, this weapon was used to aid in fishing. The Aztecs also used a **macuahuitl**, which was a wooden club containing sharp pieces of volcanic glass, or obsidian. This weapon was used to disable an enemy or opponent without killing him. In addition, the Aztecs utilized bows and arrows. ([]) ||

C Civilization/Nation/Group Inca_

Time Period


 * E || In theory the Sapa Inca owned all the land and wealth in the empire. The Sapa Inca gave farmers land to grow food. In return they had to do some work for him. The Sapa Inca reserved some land for himself and some was set aside to support the temples and priests. The Inca farmers had to pay a kind of tax by working of the Sapa Inca's and temples land. Sometimes they also had to work on projects like building roads and bridges.The main resources available to the Inca Empire were agricultural land and labour, mines (producing precious and prestigious metals such as gold, silver or copper), and fresh water, abundant everywhere except along the desert coast. With careful manipulation of these resources, the Incas managed to keep things moving the way they wanted. Tribute in the form of service ( mita) played a crucial role in maintaining the empire and pressurizing its subjects into ambitious building and irrigation projects. Some of these projects were so grand that they would have been impossible without the demanding whip of a totalitarian state.

Although a certain degree of local barter was allowed, the state regulated the distribution of every important product. The astonishing Inca highways were one key to this economic success. Some of the tracks were nearly 8km wide and at the time of the Spanish Conquest the main Royal Highway ran some 5000km, from the Río Ancasmayo in Colombia down the backbone of the Andes to the coast at a point south of the present-day Santiago in Chile. The Incas never used the wheel, but gigantic llama caravans were a common sight tramping along the roads, each animal carrying up to 50kg of cargo.

Every corner of the Inca domain was easily accessible via branch roads, all designed or taken over and unified with one intention - to dominate and administer an enormous empire. Runners were posted at chasqui stations and tambo rest-houses which punctuated the road at intervals of between 2 and 15km. Fresh fish was relayed on foot from the coast and messages were sent with runners from Quito to Cusco (2000km) in less than six days. The more difficult mountain canyons were crossed on bridges suspended from cables braided out of jungle lianas (creeping vines) and high passes were - and still are - frequently reached by incredible stairways cut into solid rock cliffs.

The primary sector in the economy was inevitably agriculture and in this the Incas made two major advances: large terracing projects created the opportunity for agricultural specialists to experiment with new crops and methods of cultivation, and the transportation system allowed a revolution in distribution. Massive agricultural terracing projects were going on continuously in Inca-dominated mountain regions. The best examples of these are in the Cusco area at Tipón, Moray, Ollantaytambo, Pisac and Cusichaca. Beyond the aesthetic beauty of Inca stone terraces, they have distinct practical advantages. Stepping hillsides minimizes erosion from landslides, and using well-engineered stone channels gives complete control over irrigation. Natural springs emerging on the hillsides became the focus of an intricate network of canals and aqueducts extending over the surrounding slopes which had themselves been converted into elegant stone terraces. An extra incentive to the Inca mind must surely have been their reverence of water, one of the major earthly spirits. The Inca terraces are often so elaborately designed around springs that they seem to be worshipping as much as utilizing water.

Today, however, it is Inca construction which forms their lasting heritage: vast building projects masterminded by high-ranking nobles and architects, and supervised by expert masons with an almost limitless pool of peasant labour. Without paper, the architects resorted to imposing their imagination onto clay or stone, making miniature models of the more important constructions - good examples of these can be seen in Cusco museums. More importantly, Inca masonry survives throughout Peru, most spectacularly at the fortress of Sascayhuaman above Cusco, and on the coast in the Achirana aqueduct, which even today still brings water down to the Ica Valley from high up in the Andes. In the mountains, Inca stonework gave a permanence to edifices which would otherwise have needed constant renovation.([]) || Below the Sapa Inca were the nobles. Below them were a class of men called curacas. They were not necessarily Incas. When the Incas conquered a people they took the leader's sons and taught them to rule the Inca way. They then became curacas. At the bottom of Inca society were the craftsmen and farmers. Inca craftsmen made objects of gold, silver and copper. Stonemasons cut stone bricks for building using stone hammers and wet sand for polishing. Inca stone bricks fitted so closely they did not need mortar to hold them together. ||
 * S || At the top of Inca society was the emperor, the Sapa Inca. (His title means unique Inca). The Incas believed their ruler was descended from the sun god and he was treated with great respect. Visitors had to remove their footwear if they approached the Sapa Inca and they had to carry a burden on their back to show their respect for him.
 * P || The Incas did not have prisons. Instead for serious crimes such as murder, stealing and blasphemy offenders were executed by being pushed off a cliff. Less serious crimes were punished by cutting off the hands or blinding.([])

The political structure of the Incas was complex and tightly controlled. The Emperor was the supreme ruler of the state. The Empire was divided into four quarters known as the four //Suyus//. Hence the Incas called their empire //The Ttahuantin-suyu//, which means 'land of the four quarters'. Each quarter was placed under a governor who reported directly to the king. The king ruled the Inca Empire from his seat in the capital city of Cuzco. These governors were blood relatives of the king. Under every governor there were 10 district governors each having 10,000 peasants. The offices were further divided with smaller units of peasants under each official of descending rank. At the lowest level, an official had only 10 peasants under him.([]) ||
 * I || MI: The INca empire incorporated many aspects of previous andean cultures, but used them together in new ways.
 * The Inca had great state orgaanization and a genius for bureaucracy and control of conquered people, it demonstrated a st ronger level of integration and assimilation than the Aztecs
 * The Incan calendar was important to the ancient Incas for religious reasons. Each calendar month hosted a different religious festival. The Incan calendar was divided into 12 months. Each month was divided into 3 weeks. Each week had 10 days. The Incas used special towers called "time makers" that told them when a new month was beginning. Time makers used the position of the sun to mark the passage of time.Whenever there was some inaccuracy from the "Time Makers", the Inca would simply add on the lost time to the calendar, which created an accurate calendar. ||
 * R || The Inca Religion allowed conquered cultures to incorporate their own religion and beliefs. The Incas were a polytheistic people with a rich mythology. While they left no written record of their religion, they did leave an oral record of their beliefs that has been passed down from generation to generation through the centuries.

Viracocha is the name of the Inca god of creation. All things and all other gods came from Viracocha. The legend is that he rose out of Lake Titicaca after __ the Great Flood __ that destroyed all life.

Viracocha made the Inca out of the clay of the earth and the rocks in the mountains. He also created the sun god Inti who fathered Manco Capac, the first Inca Emperor and Mamaquilla (the Moon Goddess) linked to the account of time and timing, the first female deity.

There are many gods in the Inca pantheon. The Inca's worship of nature demanded that almost all natural phenomenons had a god associated with it. In addition, they also practiced ancestor worship. However, the sun god Inti was considered to be the most important god at the time. ([]) || Incas did not have swords but in hand to hand fighting they used wooden clubs tipped with stone or bronze. Many Incas wore a costume of quilted cotton, which gave some protection against the wooden and stone weapons of other South American peoples. Some Inca soldiers also protected their backs and chests with plates of wood or metal. They also carried wooden shields. The Inca army was supplied by a network of storehouses. They also had stone fortresses on mountains. When the Incas killed their enemies they sometimes covered their skulls with gold and used them as drinking cups. They also made dead enemies teeth into necklaces and even made drums from human skin. ([]) ||
 * I || Incas knew of the bow and arrow but they relied mainly on the sling and stone. It is a surprisingly accurate and deadly weapon.
 * T || INcan Technology and inventions
 * Terrace Farming
 * Freeze Dried Foods
 * Use of Gold and Silver
 * Architecture/Stonework
 * Weaving and use of textiles
 * Aqueducts (the Incas were frequent bathers)
 * Suspension Bridges
 * Panpipes
 * Systems of Measurement (calendar, quipus) ||