Classical+China

1.1 Leader Analysis on Qin Shi Huangdi

Lifespan: 259-210 BC. Died of Mercury Poisoning.Ruled over China, and was in power from age 13 onwards, from 246-210.



Homework 1.2: Legalism- An approach to legal questions characterized by abstract philosophy applied to laws, constitution, or other legal measures,rather than the social,political, or economic context at the time.In some extreme versions, legalism perpetuates that the pre-existing laws contain a pre-determined answer to any legal problems, and the judge must find a way to relate the two. It was believed that the philosophy behind legalism was based on three complementary principles: Many chinese philosophers have a very negative view of Legalism, blaming it for what would be considered a totalitarian society.Many chinese scholars believe that the negative views on legalism gave chinese imperial politics a moral influence,rather than being based entirely upon law.However, this criticism of the Qin is very iased, as most of the chinese historical records were written by Confucian Scholars, who were persecuted by the Qin.In later dynasties, legalism was discredited, and became integrated with confucianism and still plays a role in the current chinese government.More recently, Mao Zedong compared himself with Qin Shi Huang, and publicly approved of some legalist methods.However, since the 1990s especially, the ideas of legalism(rule of law) have become more popular outside of China as well.
 * Fa(law/principles)- stated that the code of laws must be written and made easily available to the public.All people under the emperor were equal before the law. The law will therefore predictably punish and reward those who defy or follow it, respectively.IN addition, the legal system ran the state, not the emperor.
 * Shu(tactics/methods)- stated that the ruler at the time must employ certain tactics so that no one usurped power.This way, no-one would understand the ruler's true personality or motivation and manipulate it to their advantage.
 * Shi(legitimacy/charisma)- stated that the position of ruler held the power, not the person who ruled.Therefore, it was important for the ruler to analyze trends,context,and facts in passing any law.

Homework 1.3: ESPIRIT chart on Han China

Economics: The basic peasant during the Han dynasty survived by subsistence farming, which they then traded in public markets for cloth, oil, tools, alcohol/tobacco and services.To obtain the money to purchase said goods/services, the farmers sold grain and home-produced crafts.The basic division of land in agrarian China was set in confucian social philosophy: Scholar-beaureaucrats at the top, famers next, artisans under famers and merchants lowest, because merchants simply moved things around and did not contribute to the value of the goods at all.The first few rulers of the Han dynasty did not interfere with the economy, operating on a laissez-faire policy.The only steps they took were to abolish the suppresive laws of the Qin and lower taxes on the peasants, as these had been used to aid construction of the Great Wall. Social: The order of the social hierarchy proceeded as follows: At the top is the emperor, who was usually a minor and was ruled by a regent called the dowager empress.Ranked immediately below them were the regional kings, who shared the same bloodline of the emperor Liu Bang.Each Successice rank gave increasingly better legal and pension benefits.Typical family structure in the Han dynasty was patriarchal, and typically had 4-5 members of a nuclear family, instead of a large extended family living under one roof as would become popular in later dynasties.Also according to confucianist family norms, the amount of respect and intimacy differed throughout males in the family.Women were also expected to obey their father, then husband, then oldest son, in that order. However, there were several exceptions to that rule, with empresses openly humiliating their male relatives.Daughters were also not formally mentioned in a father's will, but she would get some support through her dowry when she got married.Women were also kept from doing hard labor in the fields with their husbands, by binding their feet.This came to mean that women with tiny feet were considered attractive. Politics:Politically, in many ways, the Han dynasty was a restoration of the Zhou feudal system, with many small, independant states in existance.The Early Han dynasty also inherited the oppressive systems of the Qin. The 1st emperor of the Han, Liu Bang, followed the legalist system of initiating people into his government baased on ability instead of bloodline, which allowed the economy to recover quickly under competent officials and reforms.Due to the emperor urging the populace to be thrifty and reduced taxes, which allowed the Han to prosper and increase their military power.Politics in the Han dynasty came to be best known for their political and economic reforms, which lasted 12 successive generations of emperors. Interactions:The Han Empire was divided into areas directly controlled by the central government, known as commanderies, and a number of semi-autonomous kingdoms. These kingdoms gradually lost all vestiges of their independence, particularly following the Rebellion of the Seven States. The Xiongnu, a nomadic confederation of Central Asian tribes which dominated the eastern Eurasian Steppe, defeated the Han in battle in 200 BCE. Following the defeat a political marriage alliance was negotiated in which the Han became the de facto inferior partner. When, despite the treaty, the Xiongnu continued to raid Han borders, Emperor Wu of Han (r. 141–87 BCE) launched several military campaigns against them, which eventually forced the Xiongnu to accept vassal status as Han tributaries. Han forces managed to divide the Xiongnu into two competing nations, the Southern and Northern Xiongnu, and forced the Northern Xiongnu across the Ili River. Despite this victory, the territories north of Han's borders were quickly overrun by the nomadic Xianbei Confederation.After 92 CE, the palace eunuchs increasingly involved themselves in court politics, engaging in violent power struggles between the various consort clans of the empresses and empress dowagers, causing Han's ultimate downfall. Religion: Ancestor worship has been a central point in Chinese religion from the beginnings. The emperor had not only to worship his ancestors by costly burials (therefore all Han emperors had the appellation //xiao// "the Filial") but also to be reverent to natural phenomena like Heaven and Earth (//Tian Di// ), the Great Unity and several deities and spirits according to the seasons (the God of Millet, Houji, or the Three Augusts and Five Emperors, //San Huang Wu Di// ). The emperor climbed Mount Tai (Tai'an /Shandong) to present offerings to Heaven and Earth.Esoteric and mythical rites, divination and sorcery were very widespread. There were several cases of sorcery during the reign of Emperor Wudi. TLV-Symbols (magic symbols with the shape of the letters T, L and V) upon round objects like mirrors should protect from danger and ascertain the rhythm of the universe with a sure position of the mirror's owner inside the world. The Daoist Huang-Lao cult promised eternal life by certain practices like meditation or medical care. The search for medicine promising an eternal life lead to the development of alchemy. In the course of the 400 years of Han Dynasty, the belief in an afterlife paradise shifted from the Penglai Islands in the Eastern Sea (Okinawa/ Japan) to the land of the Queen Mother of the West, Xi Wang Mu. Huang-Lao thought was a mixture of the thought in the regulating and healing force of the Yellow Emperor, the ideal monarch of the past, and the philosophy of Laozi who taught that "the Way" (//dao// ) is the single order of nature whose mind and intention underlie all aspects of the universe. For rulers, the ideal way is to leave it to advisors to govern and to fold his own hands, doing nothing (//wuwei// ). During the first century AD, Buddhism followed the Inner Asian trade routes and gained a foothold in the capital Luoyang. Intelligence:The orthodox Confucianism of the Han Dynasty was not identical to the man-centered philosophy of Confucius who stressed good behaviour of the ruler according to the old customs.Although the founder of the dynasty was not really interested in scholarship and the first rulers of the Han adhered to the principle of a non-interfering government (//wuwei// ), the government had to rely on professional scholars just because they were the people he needed to administer his empire (scholars like Lu Jia "New Speeches"). "An empire can be conquered from the horseback, but not ruled from a horseback", is a recommandation by Lu Jia valid for all Chinese dynasties. During the time of Emperor Wudi, the Confucian scholar Dong Zhongshu admonished the ruler to establish an academy which should produce scholars to educate the crown prince (recommended by Jia Yi in his book //Xinshu// "New Essays") and to produce an elite for governmental offices. These officers had to learn and to study the Five Confucian Classics //Wu Jing// that were mainly interpreted in a holistic view of universe with man embedded in a cosmic dynamism that connected the natural phenomena with the deeds of men. While the original Confucianism only centered around man and his position in the society, Han time Confucianism was highly intertwined with Zou Yan's (3rd century BC) theory of the Five Elements (//wuxing// ) and the philosophy of //Yin-Yang// that assumed an everlasting change and influence of all things. Technology: The state guided production of salt and iron, coin casting (in China, coins were casted, not minted), the production of iron tools and of standard weights and measures, and the governmental task to control water ways and water supply for agriculture was a great chance of development of technical inventions in these areas. To administer the vast Chinese empire, the Han emperors had made several census to count the population - and to control the households in tax registers. The Taoist scholars, trying to find a medicine that gives eternal life or to make gold, contributed in the development of alchemy and chemistry. Astronomy and calendar were a important subjects for the ruling class to ensure their Heaven-approved mandate to rule: Zhang Heng invented the armillary sphere, a celestial globe and a seismograph to predict earthquakes.In the field of agriculture, Fan Shengzhi proposed measurements to ameliorate the harvest results (changing crops, pithole sewing and planting, selecting crops according to soil quality, irrigation, use of fertilizers, transplanting seedlings, especially in the southern paddy field agriculture). The peasantry was recognized as the provider of the whole society, and his work had to be estimated. While men worked the fields, women had to spin and to wave. The iron plough became more widespread, drawn by a team of oxen. Fan Sheng also made propositions for gardening, horse breeding, and the breeding of silkworms. The eunuch Cai Lun is said to have invented the paper, made from mulberry bark and other ingredients.Han Dynasty artisans made great contributions to the development of a sophisticated culture: metalwork (decorated mirrors, lamps, burners), spinning, weaving, lacquerware, earthenware. Of the architecture, nothing is left but the burial offerings in the tombs of the Han rulers and officials, mostly earthenware houses, towers, farms and their inhabitants and their kettle. To govern the empire, courier routes throughout China were built, and waterways faciliated the transport of grains and taxation objects. Along the northern frontier, fortification walls were built(most famously, the Great Wall of China).Also, more than before, scholars like Wang Chong )tried to develop a worldview based on natural science.

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Homework 1.4 Vocabulary Tao- can be roughly stated to be the //flow of the universe//, or the force behind the natural order, equating it with the influence that keeps the universe balanced and ordered.This was coupled with the belief that Tao could be easily observed in nature. Chapter Summary: China
 * Shi Huangdi || First Emperor of the Qin Dynasty. Known for brutality, but general effectiveness in maintaining order.He was the first to truly unite China under one ruler.Achievements include the census,standardized measurement system, and standardized language. ||
 * Qin || Dynasty that took power after the fall of the Zhou ( circa 221BC ). Brought an and to the Era of Warring State which started circa 402 BC ||
 * Han || The third Dynasty in China which took power after the fall of the Qin, most specifically after the failures of Shi Huangdi's son (circa 202 BC). ||
 * Zhou || The 1st dynasty of Classical China.The Zhou dynasty lasted longer than any other dynasty in Chinese History — though the actual political and military control of China by the dynasty only lasted during the Western Zhou period. During the Zhou Dynasty, the use of Iron was introduced to China, while this period of Chinese history produced what many consider the zenith of Chinese bronze-ware making. The dynasty also spans the period in which the written script evolved from the ancient stage as seen in early Western Zhou bronze inscriptions, to the beginnings of the modern stage. ||
 * Great Wall || Originally constructed by Qin Shi Huangdi using conscripted peasant labor, which extends over 3000 miles(most likely the largest construction project in human history). ||
 * Taoism || meaning "The Way", Taoism, revolved around 4 central principles, including: *
 * Te-(integrity) the active expression of Tao, and living one's life by Taoist principles
 * WuweiThe literal meaning of //wu wei// is "without action". It is often expressed by the paradox //wei wu wei//, meaning "action without action" or "effortless effort".The practice and efficacy of wu wei are fundamental in Taoist thought, most prominently emphasized in Taoism. The goal of wu wei is alignment with Tao, revealing the soft and invisible power within all things. It is believed by Taoists that masters of wu wei can observe and follow this invisible potential.Taoist philosophy proposes that the universe works harmoniously according to its own ways. When someone exerts their will against the world, they disrupt that harmony. Taoism does not identify one's will as the root problem. Rather, it asserts that one must place his will in harmony with the natural universe.
 * Pu- //Pu// is a symbol for a state of pure potential and perception without prejudice. In this state, Taoists believe everything is seen as it is, without preconceptions or illusion.//Pu// is usually seen as keeping oneself in the primordial state of //tao.// It is believed to be the true nature of the mind, unburdened by knowledge or experiences. In the state of //pu//, there is no right or wrong, beautiful or ugly. There is no pure experience, or awareness free from learned labels and definitions. It is this state of being that is the goal of following //wu wei//. ||
 * Confucianism || Humanity is core in Confucianism. A simple way to appreciate Confucian thought is to consider it as being based on varying levels of honesty, and a simple way to understand Confucian thought is to examine the world by using the logic of humanity. In practice, the elements of Confucianism accumulated over time. There is classical Wuchang consisting of five elements:Humanity, Righteousness, Ritual, Zhi Knowledge, Integrity, and there is also classical Sizi with four elements: Loyalty, Filial piety, Continency, and Righteousness. There are still many other elements, such as honesty, kindness and forgiveness, cleanness), shame, judge and sense of right and wrong, bravery, gentleness, good/kindhearted, respectfulness/reverence, frugality, and modesty/ self-effacement. Among all elements, Ren (Humanity) and Yi (Righteousness) are fundamental. Sometimes morality is interpreted as the phantom of Humanity and Righteousness  ||
 * Legalism || "Rule of Law" See homework 1.2 for full definition. ||
 * Bureaucracy || an administrative, policy-making group of appointed officials(not elected). ||

China's isolationism may have limited it's ability to learn from other cultures, but protected China from invasions and helped develop the unique identity which would help identify it in the future.The decline of the Shang Dynasty did not result in widespread political chaos as an invasion of India would've.The basic Chinese ideology was developed by Huanghe thinkers, and later came to be known as Dao, based on the belief in balance and opposites.Despite important cultural continuity,the religious and especially the political habits of the Shang were heavily modified as China grew, leading to much cultural diversity, but conflict.From these experiences, the Zhou contributed in several ways to chinese politics and heightened focus on the central government over local, autocratic governments..They also asserted their right to rule through religion a technique known as the "Mandate of Heaven".While the subsequent Qin dynasty was short lived, it offered many innovations such as a census, standardized weights, and standardized language. When the Qin fell due to bad leadership after 3 generations,The Han took over, improving the bureacracy and reversing many of the Qin's oppressive policies.Slowly over 200 years, Han control weakened, and constant invasions by the nomadic Huns overturned the entire dynasty.By the time order had been restored, (over 300 years later) China had grown out of it's classical period.

Fall of Han China: The quality of Han rule weakened after two centuries. Central control weakened due to a heavily corrupted court, which held excessive power and influence at the time.A peasant rebellion due to no government aid from natural disasters in 183AD further weakened the government, and allowed military leaders and regional warlords to seize great power for themselvs.This internal weakness, coupled with invasions from the nomadic Huns(who had been a threat to china before) completely overturned the dynasty. Between 220 and 589 CE, China was in a state of chaos, and by the time order was finally restored, the classic developmental period of China was over. However, Han advances in culture and politics persisted through the 3 tumultuous centuries.The balance of power was finally restored by the beginning of the "3 kingdoms" era, in which 3 powerful imperial states established themselves after the death of the final Han emperor Xian, and posessed similar military power. Unwilling to risk their own destruction by fully commiting to a war, the 3 kingdoms balance of power preserved an uneasy peace.