Early+Latin+America

Homework 1.1 ESPIRIT Chart

Economy: Agriculture and mining were the basis of the Spanish colonial economy, funded by the encomienda system of native labor. Social: Like many Europeans at the time, Spaniards and portuguese were heavily urban, with many peasants living in small towns and villages. Politics: By the mid-15th century, the rulers of Spain, King Ferdinand of Aragon and Queen Isabella of Castille seized political power, carrying out a program of religious unification that sought to eliminate ethnic diversity. Interactions: Spanish conquistadores established many missions and churches, especially in their later colony of florida. At the missions, Native American’s lives were changed as villagers became Christians, adopting new beliefs and religious practices and Spanish names. Native American religious leaders gave way to Catholic priests. New crops such as watermelons, peaches, figs, hazelnuts, oranges, and garbanzo beans were grown in mission gardens, and some native people raised chickens. Others learned how to read and write in Spanish. Native Americans valued Spanish iron tools, glass beads, clothing, and other goods. Even so, the Native Americans at the missions continued many traditional ways, such as methods of building houses. Religion:Religion served as the core of Iberian politics. Intelligence: The European invaders used a multitude of tactics to overwhelm the superior numbers of the Native forces Technology: Many technologies from Europe became imported to the Americas when the Spanish invaded. media type="custom" key="8015504" Summary: In his treatise "On the reasons for Just War upon the Indians", Juan Guines de Sepulveda asserts that native Americans were a backwards, inferior people, and that the Spanish conquerors should be applauded for making them more "civilized" and attempting to assimilate them into Spanish society. Using the writings of the greek philosopher ARistotle as the basis of his argument, Guines asserts spanish superiority, imbuing his writing with the religious fervor of the time with such quotes as " they are ...impious servants of the Devil" and "uncultivated/barbarous".Guines also attempts to use the Spanish Conquistadors reports to reinforce the native inferiority, saying that their trade and commerce only raise them roughly above the intelligence level of a bear.
 * Eventually, Spanish farms and ranches competed with Native American villages, though they were still dependant on Native Americans as a labor force.
 * Up to 80% of the enslaved population worked and lived on the land, however, Mining was the essential basis of Spain's rule of the West Indies.
 * Although the conquests did provide some wealth, most of the metals came from the mining industry, which allowed the spanish colonies to take their place in the growing world economy.
 * Gold was found in the Carribean colombia, and Chile, but Silver formed the Basis of spanish wealth in America.
 * This pattern was also established in the Americas, where europeans lived in cities and towns surrounded by rural native populations.
 * Many outcasts and commmoners from Europe sought to recreate the European Hierarchy, but with themselves as the new nobility, having the native peoples as their serfs.
 * The patriarchal family structure was easily adapted to Latin America, where large estates and Encomiendas which provided to framework for relations based on economic dominance.
 * The Iberian peninsula maintained it's tradition of holding slaves, in contrast of medieval europe, and had imported slaves from Africa specifically.
 * With the fall in 1492 of Granada, the last Muslim kingdom, Christianity once again began to reign over the Iberian peninsula.
 * Moved by the new Political and religious fervor, Isabella ordered all Jews to leave her country, or convert to Christianity causing 200,000 people to leave, and sever economic disruption.
 * This economic deficiency lead to Isabella trying to compensate for the lost labor/income, and may have sparked her interest in Christopher Columbus' voyage to "India" by sailing west.
 * The political centralization of Castile and Portugal was dependant upon a strong bureaucracy made up of many men trained as lawyers and judges.
 * The Encomienda system was originally created to convert Natives to Christianity.
 * The close links between the church and state occured due to the reconquest of the Iberian peninsula from Muslims.
 * The Royal Family gained power over the Church, which extended to the New World, with Royal ability to appoint church officials.
 * Biological Warfare was used, with many spanish diseases causing mass death among natives, who had no resistance.
 * Trickery and Various Shady negotiations- Ex, when Montezuma was captured by Hernan Cortez, Cortez accepted ransom money, then killed Montezuma anyway.
 * Reconquistas used the help of rival tribes to defeat the Aztec confederacy. While they did offer resistance, SPanish also used tactics like Starvation and cutting off the supply system to the Aztec army.
 * Spanish naval power was re-established with the advent of large, heavily armed ships called galleons that were used to carry silver.
 * The spanish Empire became a great bureaucracy through Letrados, university trained lawyers from spain hired to help administrate the colonies.
 * Merchant guilds called consulados controlled goods shipped to America, and handled the silver payments recieved.

De Las Casas Document Summary: MI: While both De las Casas and Sepulveda acknowledge the Indians as barbaric, Sepulveda believes that the Natives did have advanced economic systems and were not incapable of self-government to the point that the Spanish should take them over out of natural right.
 * De las Casas acknowledges Sepulveda's opinion, but undermines it through attacking it's basis: Aristotles teachings.Believing that Sepulveda had taken Aristotle out of context and used an "ignorant" quotation as a basis for his argument.
 * He also compares the subjugation of the Spanish at the hands of the Roman Empire. stating that by Sepulveda's logic, "it was unjust for the Spanish to fight against the superior Romans."
 * De Las Casas also tried to explain that he had been to the new world, and observed Spanish cruelty, where Sepulveda based his arguments off hearsay, and had no true knowledge of Indian society, relying on the accounts of Spanish Conquerors.

Take notes on the Portuguese in Brazil (Finish the Chapter)

Brazil: The first Plantation Colony: MI- In Brazil, the Portuguese created the first great plantation colony of the Americas, growing sugar wiht the use of Native Americans, and eventually, African slaves.In the 18th century, the discovery of gold, expansion of slavery opened up to the interior of BRazil.
 * The first official portuguese landfall in south America took place in 1500, when Pedro Cabral, leader of an expedition ot India, stopped briefly on the shore. There was little to interest the newly arrived portuguese, except for the dyewood trees, so Brazil was largely left alone for 30 yers, only seldom used by merchants who could use the dyewood.
 * Pressure from french competitors eventually forced the Portuguese to military action, After clearing the coast of rivals, minor portuguese nobles were given strips of land along the coast to colonize and develop. The nobles who held these capitancies combined broad, feudalistic powers with a strong desire for commercial expansion.
 * In 1549, the Portuguese king sent a governor-general and other officials to create the royal capital at El Salvador. Shortly after, in 1600, indigenous resistance had been broken by military action, missionary activity, and epidemic disease.Ports, such as El Salvador and Rio de Janeiro became increasingly important, leading to the rise of nearly 150 sugar plantations. In 30 years, that number doubled.

Sugar and Slavery: Brazil's Age of Gold: MI: As overseas extensions of Europe, the American colonies were particularly susceptible to changes in the political climate of Europe.The Hapsburg kings of spain also ruled Portugal. As part of a worldwide struggle against Spain, the Dutch seized a portion of Brazil's northern coast. While they were eventually expelled, this lead to the growth of Sugar industries in other parts of the world .This new competition weakened Brazil's economy(rising price of slaves, falling price of sugar, etc...) Multiracial societies: MI: The mixture of whites, Africans, and Indians created the basis of multiracial societies in hierarchy of color, status and occupation.BY the 18th century, the castas, people of mixed origin, began to increase rapidly and become a major segment of the population. Society of Castas: MI: Spanish society in the colonies were drawn from their own medieval experiences, but American realities soon altered that concept.The conquest involved "Miscegenation", or the sexual exploitation of women and occasional alliances through gifts of concubines/political marriage(leading to the aforementioned mixed-blood population growing at a rapid rate). 18th Century Reforms: MI: Increasing attacks on the Iberian empires by foreign rivals lead to the Bourbon reforms in SPanish AMerica and the reforms of Pombal in Brazil. These changes strengthened the two empires, but also generated colossal social unrest that eventually lead to colonial movements for independance. Shifting Balance of Politics and Trade: MI: By the 18th century, it was clear that the Spanish colonial system had become outmoded, and that Spain's once-secure hold on the Indies was no longer exclusive. Beset by foreign wars, increasing debt, declining population, and international revolts, the weakened spain was threatened by the increasingly strong french, dutch, and English. Bourbon Reforms: Pombal & Brazil: MI: THe Bourbon reforms in Spain and Spanish America were paralleled in Portugal via the administration ofthe Marquis de Pombal. Portugal's authoritarian prime minister, Pombal had lived as ambassador to england, and witnessed the effects of Mercantilism firsthand, hoping to use these same techniques to Spain's benefit, brutally supressing anyone who stood in his way. Reform, Reaction, & Revolt: MI: By the midi-18th century, the American colonies of Spain and Portugal were experienceing rapid growth in production capacity and population, much like the rest of the world at the time.
 * During most of the next century, Brazil held the leading position as the world's leading producer of sugar.Processing of sugarcane involved a strong combination of agricultural fieldwork/hard labor, and industrial machinery. Although some free workers were skilled at their occupation, slaves did most of the work. By the 17th century, Brazil's population was 50% African, and 7000 new slaves were imported from Africa per year.
 * This model gave rise to the later Plantation system, which many other European societies would use in their carribean colonies.Even after the economy became more diverse, Brazil's social hierarchy still clearly reflected it's slave/ plantation origins.However, despite the strict social structure, the majority of people were mixed-race. (Up to 65-70%)
 * LIke Spain, Portugal created a bureaucratic structure that integrated the colony within an imperial system. As in Spanish America, royal officials trained in law formed the core of the bureaucracy.Also unlike spain, Portugal's empire was largely based in Asia and Africa, with various outpost colonies like Brazil.As Brazil had no printing presses or universities, intellectual life was largely an extension of Portuguese culture.
 * Although Brazil's domination in the world sugar market was lost, throughout the 17th century, Paulistas( hardy backwoodsmen from Sao Paulo) had been searching for precious metals and exploring Brazil's interior. These expeditions not only helped established portuguese power over the continent. but were oftentimes successful in their search for riches. In 1695, several gold strikes in the mountainous interior region(minas Gerais) caused a new boom in the Brazilian economy.
 * The discovery of gold, and later diamonds was a mixed blessing in the long run. While it did open the interior to new settlement, once again, it caused severe ecological effects, at a great detriment to the native population. Mining also stimulated deforestation for the purposes of ranching and farming, but also new urban growth in Rio de Janeiro, and other cities close to mines.
 * Gold allowed portugal to continue economic policies which were detrimental in the long run, enabling it to buy the manufactured goods it needed to support it's colonies, as few industries were developed in Portugal. This lead to an increased dependance on England to compensate for the imbalance of trade.
 * The three major groups (Natives, Europeans, and African) were brought together under very different circumstances, resulting in a more diverse hierarchy between the conquerors, the conquered, and the enslaved.This division of society along the lines of master and servant, pagan and christian, etc... which reflected the divisions of power and conditions in the colonies.
 * For example, in MExico, where an indian nobility had already existed, the aspects of pre-conquest social order were largely maintained because they were useful to the conquering government. In theory, the natives and the Spanish had separate societies with their own separate laws and structures.
 * Throughout the Spanish Indies, European categories of Nobility, priesthood, and commoners continued, not only based on wealth and occupation but also on racial origin and place of birth.This "Sociedad de las castas" accompanied a great cultural fusion in Latin America.
 * Originally, all whites shared priveleged status of Spaniards, regardless of the continent of their birth, but over time, distinctions developed between peninsulares (people actually born in Spain) and Creoles (people born in the New World). While the Creoles considered themselves spaniards, their legitimacy was constantly in question due to the large amounts of mestizos.
 * As the mixed blood populations grew in SPanish America, increasing restrictions were placed upon them, but their social mobility could not be halted.A successful indian would call himse lf a Mestizo. A mestizo who married a Spanish woman would be elevated to white status.
 * In Spain and other areas, small clubs and associations, known as "Amigos del Pais" (friends of the Country) met in cities to discuss many types of reforms. THeir programs were largely directed at material benefit and improvement, not political change.
 * In Portugal foreign influences and ideas created a group of progressive thinkers and bureaucrats open to new ideas in education, politics, and philosophy.Much of these changes resulted from the change in European demographics/economics, as much as from new ideas.
 * ,The increased population and economy of Europe, increased dependance on the Americas for luxury products, and the series of wars for control of the New World placed increasing importance on the colonies.
 * Although these EUropean rivals could not capture Mexico or Peru, the sparsely populated islands in the Carribean became prime targets to the combined british, french, and dutch forces orchestrating many raids on the settled spaniards and trading the stolen contraband.
 * Less apparent than the loss of territory, was the failure of Spanish Mercantile and political systems. Their annual fleets became irregular, Silver payments from the Americas declined, and most goods shipped on Spanish ships were non-spanish in origin.
 * The War for Spanish Succession occured after the Spanish king Charles II Died. Various outside nations provided backup to the various claimants, eventually resolved in the treaty of Utrecht, and the Bourbon dynasty took power.
 * The New Bourbon regime in spain was largely directed around a series of reforms directed at strengthening the state, and the Spanish economy.In this age of enlightened Despotism, Charles III were moved by economic nationalism, and a strong centralized government to insitute reforms to the Iberian Empire.
 * During these reforms, French bureaucratic models were introduced, the tax system was strengthened, and the navy was reformed. The navy was restored, and new ships were built. The convoy system was abandoned, and new ports were opened which would only service Spanish ships under a spanish liscence.Overall, the government took a more active role in the economy, expanding commerce without trying to enact major social/political shanges.
 * In the West Indies the Bourbons initiated a broad program of reform. New viceroyalties were set up in NEw Granada and Rio de la plata. To improve administration and defence, royal administrators were sent to the Indies, most notably Jose de Galvez, who spent 6 years in MExico before becoming a minister of the Indies.
 * Vigorous administrative reforms were sent to Brazil to enforce his changes. Fiscal reforms were aimed at eliminating contraband, gold smuggling, and tax evasion.Monopoly companies were formed to help stimulate production in older agricultural zones, with new crops being introduced.
 * Pombal also attempted social reforms, abolishing slavery in portugal in order to insure a more steady supply to Brazil. He also removed natives from missionary control, and encouraged europeans to marry them, also sending immigrant couples to colonize more interior areas.
 * Pombal hoped to revitalize the colonies as a way to strengthen the mother- country, but little changed in society overall. Brazil was still profoundly based on slavery, and imports reached a high of 20,000 new slaves per year.
 * Reformist policies, tighter tax collection, and the prescence of more active government disrupted old patterns of power and influence, caused raised expectations, and provoked violent coloniel reactions. In New Granada, popular complaints against the government's control of alcohol and tobacco consumption lead to the widespread Comunero revolt. eventually brought to an end by racial tension and government concessions.
 * At the same time in Peru, an even more threatening revolt erupted. A great Indian uprising took placce under the leadership of Tupac Amaru, a mestizo with a direct Incan bloodline who lead a rebellion against bad government that caused the disruption of the viceroyalty for 3 years, ,while over 70,000 indians, creoles, and mestizos banded together.
 * This kind of social upheaval wasn't present in Brazil, while the government attempt to collect back taxes in minnig regions lead to a plot against portuguese control. A few bureaucrats and intellectuals planned overthrowing the government, but their conspiracy was discovered, and their leader hanged.
 * Despite the various social bases, these movements increased that stronger governments were dissatisfactory to the American colonies. The prosperity of the later 18th century caused a sense of self confidence and economic interest amont he colonial social classes, leading to increased sensitivity towards restrictions and control by the mother countries.